6.2 Political Instability and Military Coups

Political instability plagued many African nations in the 1980s and 1990s. Rooted in colonial legacies and Cold War rivalries, weak institutions and ethnic divisions fueled unrest. Economic challenges, power imbalances, and authoritarian rule further stoked tensions.

Military coups became a common response to political grievances and economic discontent. While often justified as necessary interventions, coups typically worsened instability. They hindered development, eroded democratic institutions, and deepened social divisions across the continent.

Political Instability in Africa

Legacy of Colonialism and Cold War Rivalry

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• Political instability in many African countries stemmed from the legacy of colonialism, which left behind weak institutions, arbitrary borders, and deep ethnic and regional divisions
• The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union fueled proxy conflicts and undermined political stability in many African countries as each side supported rival factions
  • The superpowers prioritized their ideological and strategic interests over the promotion of stability and democracy in Africa, contributing to the persistence of political instability in many countries (Angola, Mozambique)

Economic and Political Factors

• Economic challenges contributed to social unrest and political instability
  • High levels of poverty, inequality, and unemployment created discontent among the population and fueled instability (Nigeria, South Africa)
• The concentration of power in the hands of a small elite, often along ethnic or regional lines, led to feelings of marginalization and resentment among excluded groups
  • This power imbalance exacerbated tensions and increased the likelihood of conflict (Rwanda, Burundi)
• The lack of democratic traditions and the suppression of political opposition by authoritarian leaders fueled discontent and instability
  • Many African leaders maintained their grip on power through repressive means, stifling dissent and undermining democratic institutions (Zaire under Mobutu, Uganda under Amin)
• The militarization of politics, with the armed forces playing a significant role in political affairs, increased the likelihood of coups and other forms of military intervention
  • In some cases, the military viewed itself as the only institution capable of maintaining order and stability, leading to frequent interventions in civilian politics (Nigeria, Ghana)

Causes and Consequences of Coups

Motivations and Justifications for Coups

• Military coups were often motivated by a combination of factors, including political grievances, economic discontent, and personal ambition among military officers
  • Officers may have felt that civilian governments were corrupt, ineffective, or unable to maintain order, justifying their intervention (Burkina Faso, Niger)
• In many cases, coups were justified as necessary interventions to address corruption, mismanagement, or other failings of civilian governments
  • However, these justifications often masked underlying power struggles and personal ambitions within the military (Liberia, Sierra Leone)

Impact of Coups on Political and Economic Stability

• Coups often led to the suspension of constitutional rule and the imposition of military dictatorships, which frequently proved to be as corrupt and ineffective as the civilian governments they replaced
  • Military regimes often lacked the expertise and legitimacy to effectively govern, leading to further instability and economic decline (Nigeria under Abacha, Ghana under Acheampong)
• The frequent occurrence of coups created a climate of political uncertainty and instability, discouraging investment and economic development
  • Investors were reluctant to commit resources to countries with a high risk of political upheaval, hindering economic growth (Guinea, Mali)
• Coups and military rule often led to human rights abuses, including the suppression of political dissent, arbitrary detention, and extrajudicial killings
  • These abuses further eroded public trust in government institutions and fueled resentment and resistance (Ethiopia under the Derg, Uganda under Amin)
• The cycle of coups and counter-coups in many African countries undermined the development of stable democratic institutions and civil society
  • Frequent changes in government made it difficult to establish lasting reforms and build a culture of democratic participation (Benin, Niger)

Impact of Instability on Development

Economic and Social Consequences

• Political instability discouraged foreign investment and made it difficult for governments to implement long-term economic development plans
  • Investors were reluctant to commit resources to countries with a high risk of political upheaval, hindering economic growth (Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia)
• The frequent changes in government and policy priorities associated with political instability created an unpredictable business environment, hindering private sector growth
  • Businesses struggled to plan for the future and invest in expansion when the political landscape was constantly shifting (Zimbabwe, Madagascar)
• Political violence and civil unrest disrupted economic activities, damaged infrastructure, and displaced populations, setting back development efforts
  • Conflict and instability destroyed physical capital, disrupted trade, and forced people to flee their homes, undermining economic progress (Liberia, Sierra Leone)
• The diversion of resources towards military spending and security concerns in politically unstable countries came at the expense of investments in education, healthcare, and other social services
  • Governments prioritized short-term stability over long-term development, neglecting the needs of their populations (Sudan, Chad)

Impact on Social Cohesion and National Identity

• Political instability exacerbated social divisions along ethnic, regional, or religious lines, as rival groups competed for power and resources
  • In some cases, political leaders exploited these divisions to mobilize support, deepening societal fractures (Kenya, Côte d'Ivoire)
• The erosion of social cohesion and trust in unstable political environments made it difficult to build a sense of national identity and common purpose
  • Frequent changes in government and the absence of stable institutions hindered the development of a shared civic culture (Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo)

External Actors and Stability

Influence of Former Colonial Powers and International Institutions

• Former colonial powers, such as France and the United Kingdom, maintained significant political, economic, and military ties with their former colonies, sometimes intervening to support or undermine particular leaders or factions
  • These interventions often prioritized the interests of the former colonial powers over the stability and well-being of African nations (Gabon, Chad)
• International financial institutions, such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, promoted economic reforms and structural adjustment programs in African countries, which sometimes had destabilizing social and political consequences
  • These programs often required deep cuts in social spending and public sector employment, fueling discontent and unrest (Zambia, Senegal)

Regional Organizations and the Global War on Terror

• Regional organizations, such as the African Union and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), played an increasing role in promoting political stability and conflict resolution in Africa, through diplomatic initiatives and peacekeeping operations
  • These organizations sought to mediate conflicts, support democratic transitions, and promote regional cooperation (Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire)
• The rise of international terrorism and the global "War on Terror" in the early 21st century led to increased military and security cooperation between African governments and external actors, with mixed implications for political stability
  • While this cooperation helped to combat terrorist threats, it also risked empowering authoritarian regimes and militarizing political conflicts (Mali, Somalia)