📕African American Literature – Before 1900 Unit 13 – Du Bois: Dawn of the 20th Century

Who Was W.E.B. Du Bois?

• William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was a prominent African American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author, writer and editor born on February 23, 1868, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts
• He was the first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard University in 1895, and his doctoral dissertation, "The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States of America, 1638-1870," became his first published book
• Du Bois co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 and served as editor of its monthly magazine, The Crisis, which became a highly influential platform for African American writers and artists
• He was a professor of history, sociology, and economics at Atlanta University from 1897 to 1910 and later became a faculty member at the University of Pennsylvania and the head of the NAACP's publicity and research departments
• Du Bois was a prolific writer and his works included books, essays, articles, and poetry that addressed issues such as racism, discrimination, education, and civil rights
  • Some of his notable books include "The Souls of Black Folk" (1903), "Black Reconstruction in America" (1935), and "The World and Africa" (1947)
• He was a pioneering figure in the study of race and sociology, and his concept of "double consciousness" described the psychological challenge of reconciling an African heritage with a European upbringing and education in America

Historical Context: Turn of the 20th Century

• The turn of the 20th century was a period of significant social, political, and economic changes in the United States, particularly for African Americans
• The Reconstruction era (1865-1877) had ended, and the gains made by African Americans during this time were being eroded by the implementation of Jim Crow laws, segregation, and disenfranchisement
  • Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) established the "separate but equal" doctrine, which legalized racial segregation in public facilities
• The Great Migration, which began around 1916, saw millions of African Americans moving from the rural South to urban areas in the North and West in search of better economic opportunities and social conditions
• The Harlem Renaissance, a cultural movement that flourished in the 1920s and 1930s, celebrated African American literature, art, music, and intellectualism
  • This period saw the emergence of influential figures such as Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Claude McKay
• World War I (1914-1918) had a significant impact on African Americans, as many served in the military and hoped their service would lead to greater equality and opportunities upon their return
• The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in 1909 to combat racial discrimination and promote civil rights for African Americans
• Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), founded in 1914, promoted Black nationalism and Pan-Africanism

Key Works and Writings

• "The Souls of Black Folk" (1903) is a seminal work that explores the African American experience and introduces the concept of "double consciousness"
  • The book combines essays, personal reflections, and poetry to address issues of race, identity, and the struggle for equality
• "The Talented Tenth" (1903) is an essay that argues for the importance of higher education for African Americans and the role of a highly educated elite in uplifting the race
• "The Negro" (1915) is a groundbreaking study of African history and culture that challenges prevailing Eurocentric views and asserts the significance of Africa in world history
• "Black Reconstruction in America" (1935) is a historical analysis of the Reconstruction era that highlights the active role of African Americans in shaping the period and challenges the dominant narrative of Reconstruction as a failure
• "Dusk of Dawn: An Essay Toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept" (1940) is a semi-autobiographical work that reflects on Du Bois's life and the evolution of his thinking on race and identity
• "The World and Africa" (1947) expands on the ideas presented in "The Negro" and examines the global impact of European colonialism on Africa and the African diaspora
• Du Bois's editorials and articles in The Crisis magazine addressed a wide range of issues affecting African Americans, including lynching, education, political participation, and civil rights

Du Bois's Major Ideas and Concepts

• Double consciousness refers to the internal conflict experienced by African Americans as they struggle to reconcile their African heritage with their American identity in a society that devalues and discriminates against them
  • Du Bois describes this as a "sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity"
• The Talented Tenth concept emphasizes the importance of higher education for African Americans and the role of a highly educated elite in uplifting the race through leadership, activism, and cultural contributions
• Pan-Africanism is the belief in the unity and shared struggle of people of African descent worldwide
  • Du Bois was a key figure in the Pan-African movement and organized several Pan-African Conferences to promote solidarity and cooperation among African nations and the African diaspora
• The Veil is a metaphor used by Du Bois to describe the barrier that separates African Americans from full participation in American society due to racism and discrimination
• The Color Line refers to the racial divide and systemic discrimination that African Americans face in the United States and globally
  • Du Bois famously predicted that "the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line"
• Critique of Booker T. Washington's accommodationist approach, which emphasized vocational education and gradual progress over direct challenges to the racial status quo
  • Du Bois argued for a more assertive pursuit of civil rights and higher education as a means of achieving equality

Literary Style and Techniques

• Du Bois's writing is characterized by a combination of sociological analysis, historical research, personal reflection, and literary expression
• He employs a variety of genres, including essays, poetry, fiction, and autobiographical writing, to convey his ideas and experiences
• His prose is often lyrical and metaphorical, using vivid imagery and figurative language to illustrate complex concepts and emotions
  • For example, in "The Souls of Black Folk," he describes the African American spiritual as "the articulate message of the slave to the world"
• Du Bois frequently incorporates elements of African American folklore, spirituals, and cultural traditions into his writing to celebrate and affirm African American identity
• He uses personal anecdotes and case studies to humanize the experiences of African Americans and provide concrete examples of the impact of racism and discrimination
• Du Bois's writing is deeply analytical and often uses statistical data and historical evidence to support his arguments and challenge prevailing narratives
• His work is characterized by a strong sense of social and political engagement, as he seeks to use his writing as a tool for advocacy and change

Impact on African American Literature

• Du Bois's writings played a significant role in shaping the development of African American literature in the early 20th century
• "The Souls of Black Folk" is considered a foundational text of African American literature, influencing generations of writers and thinkers
  • The book's exploration of double consciousness, identity, and the African American experience has become a central theme in African American literature
• Du Bois's emphasis on the importance of African American culture, history, and folklore helped to inspire the Harlem Renaissance and the celebration of African American artistic expression
• His critique of Booker T. Washington and advocacy for a more assertive pursuit of civil rights influenced the political and social consciousness of African American writers
• Du Bois's Pan-Africanist ideas and global perspective encouraged African American writers to engage with issues of colonialism, imperialism, and the African diaspora
• The Crisis magazine, under Du Bois's editorship, provided a platform for African American writers, artists, and intellectuals to share their work and ideas
  • Many notable figures of the Harlem Renaissance, such as Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston, published their early work in The Crisis
• Du Bois's literary style, which blended sociological analysis with personal reflection and artistic expression, inspired later African American writers to experiment with form and genre

Criticisms and Controversies

• Some critics argued that Du Bois's concept of the Talented Tenth was elitist and promoted a narrow vision of African American leadership and progress
  • They contended that his focus on higher education and the role of an educated elite neglected the needs and contributions of the broader African American community
• Du Bois's opposition to Booker T. Washington's accommodationist approach led to a public feud between the two leaders, dividing the African American community and drawing criticism from those who supported Washington's strategy
• His later embrace of Marxism and socialism in the 1930s and beyond was controversial, as some viewed these ideologies as incompatible with the struggle for African American rights and equality
• Du Bois's decision to renounce his U.S. citizenship and move to Ghana in 1961 was met with mixed reactions, with some seeing it as a powerful statement of Pan-Africanism and others viewing it as a rejection of the African American struggle
• Some contemporary scholars have criticized Du Bois for his views on gender and women's rights, arguing that he did not sufficiently challenge patriarchal norms and structures
  • However, others point to his support for women's suffrage and his collaborations with African American women activists as evidence of his commitment to gender equality
• Du Bois's complex relationship with the NAACP, including his departure from the organization in 1934 and subsequent return in 1944, led to tensions and disagreements over strategy and leadership

Legacy and Relevance Today

• Du Bois's writings and ideas continue to be widely studied and celebrated as foundational texts in African American studies, sociology, and political thought
• His concept of double consciousness remains a powerful tool for understanding the psychological and social challenges faced by African Americans and other marginalized groups
• The Souls of Black Folk is still widely read and taught in universities and has been adapted into various artistic and multimedia forms, including plays, films, and music
• Du Bois's critique of systemic racism and his advocacy for civil rights and equality continue to resonate with contemporary social justice movements, such as Black Lives Matter
• His Pan-Africanist vision and global perspective have inspired ongoing efforts to promote solidarity and cooperation among African nations and the African diaspora
• The Crisis magazine, which Du Bois edited for over two decades, set a precedent for African American journalism and activism that continues to influence contemporary media and political discourse
• Du Bois's emphasis on the importance of education and intellectual engagement has inspired generations of African American scholars and leaders
• His legacy is celebrated through various honors and institutions, including the W.E.B. Du Bois National Historic Site in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, and the W.E.B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research at Harvard University
• Despite the criticisms and controversies surrounding some of his ideas and actions, Du Bois's overall impact on African American literature, thought, and politics is widely recognized and continues to shape discussions of race, identity, and social justice in the United States and beyond