🏛️American Architecture Unit 2 – Native American & Colonial Architecture

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Vernacular architecture refers to buildings constructed using local materials and traditions, reflecting the cultural and environmental context of a region
• Wattle and daub construction technique involves weaving wooden stakes with branches or reeds and covering them with a mixture of clay, mud, and straw
• Post-and-beam construction utilizes vertical posts and horizontal beams to create a structural framework, allowing for larger and more stable buildings
• Saltbox houses are characterized by a distinctive asymmetrical roof with a shorter front slope and a longer back slope, often extending to the first floor
• Gambrel roofs feature two slopes on each side, with the lower slope being steeper than the upper slope, providing more usable space in the attic
• Palladian windows consist of a central arched window flanked by two smaller rectangular windows, inspired by the designs of Italian architect Andrea Palladio
• Hipped roofs have slopes on all four sides that converge at a central point or ridge, providing better stability and resistance to high winds
• Clapboard siding is made of overlapping horizontal wooden boards, creating a weatherproof exterior that allows for expansion and contraction with temperature changes

Pre-Colonial Native American Architecture

• Native American architecture varied greatly depending on the region, climate, and available resources, with each tribe developing unique building styles and techniques
• Wigwams were small, temporary dwellings used by Northeast tribes, consisting of a wooden frame covered with bark, hides, or woven mats
• Longhouses were large, permanent structures built by Iroquois and other Northeast tribes, housing multiple families and serving as community centers
  • Longhouses could reach lengths of up to 100 feet and were constructed using post-and-beam techniques with bark or thatch roofs
• Pueblos, built by Southwest tribes like the Hopi and Zuni, were multi-story adobe structures that housed entire communities and included shared spaces for ceremonies and storage
  • Pueblos were often built on high mesas or cliffs for defensive purposes and to maximize solar exposure for warmth in winter
• Cliff dwellings, such as those found in Mesa Verde, Colorado, were built by Ancestral Puebloans in natural rock alcoves, providing protection from the elements and enemies
• Mound builders of the Southeast and Midwest created large earthen structures for ceremonial, burial, and residential purposes (Cahokia)
• Plank houses were built by Northwest Coast tribes using cedar planks, featuring pitched roofs and central hearths for cooking and heating
• Tipis were portable conical tents used by Plains tribes, consisting of wooden poles covered with buffalo hides or canvas, allowing for easy transport and setup

Early European Settlements and Influences

• European colonists initially built simple, functional structures using local materials and techniques learned from Native Americans, such as wattle and daub and post-and-beam construction
• Spanish missions in the Southwest, such as San Miguel Mission in Santa Fe, New Mexico, blended European and Native American architectural styles and building techniques
• Dutch Colonial architecture, found primarily in the Hudson River Valley and parts of New Jersey, featured distinctive gambrel roofs and decorative brick patterns
• French Colonial architecture, seen in Louisiana and Mississippi, incorporated elements of Caribbean and West African design, such as wide hipped roofs and wraparound porches
• German settlers in Pennsylvania and the Mid-Atlantic region built sturdy, simple stone houses with central chimneys and symmetrical facades
• Jamestown, Virginia, the first permanent English settlement in North America, featured a mix of timber-framed and brick structures arranged around a central fort
• Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts was characterized by small, one-room houses with thatched roofs and wooden clapboard siding
• The influence of English Georgian architecture began to appear in the colonies by the early 18th century, with symmetrical facades, classical details, and central entrances

Colonial Architectural Styles

• Georgian architecture, popular from the 1720s to the 1780s, was characterized by symmetrical facades, central entrances, and classical details like pediments and pilasters (Drayton Hall, South Carolina)
• Federal style, which emerged after the American Revolution, featured more delicate and refined details compared to Georgian architecture, such as fanlights and elliptical windows (Otis House, Boston)
• Dutch Colonial style, found primarily in the Hudson River Valley and parts of New Jersey, featured distinctive gambrel roofs, flared eaves, and decorative brick patterns
• Spanish Colonial architecture in the Southwest and Florida incorporated elements of Baroque and Moorish design, such as curved gables, ornate ironwork, and enclosed courtyards
• French Colonial style in Louisiana and Mississippi was characterized by wide hipped roofs, tall windows, and wraparound porches, adapted for hot and humid climates
• Saltbox houses, common in New England, featured a distinctive asymmetrical roof with a shorter front slope and a longer back slope, often extending to the first floor
• Cape Cod houses, also popular in New England, were simple, one-story cottages with a central chimney and symmetrical facade, designed to withstand harsh coastal conditions
• Vernacular farmhouses and cottages, built by settlers using local materials and techniques, varied greatly depending on the region and cultural background of the builders

Building Materials and Techniques

• Wood was the most common building material in the colonies, with abundant forests providing a ready supply of timber for framing, siding, and shingles
  • Clapboard siding, made of overlapping horizontal wooden boards, was popular in New England and the Mid-Atlantic regions
  • Shingle siding, made of small, overlapping wooden shingles, was also used in some areas, particularly in the South
• Stone was used for foundations, chimneys, and sometimes entire houses, especially in areas with good quality local stone like Pennsylvania and parts of New England
• Brick was used primarily in the South and Mid-Atlantic regions, where clay was abundant and the climate was suitable for brick production
  • Flemish bond brickwork, which alternates headers (short ends) and stretchers (long sides) in each course, was a popular decorative pattern
• Adobe, made of sun-dried clay and straw, was used extensively in the Southwest and parts of the South, where wood was scarce and the climate was dry
• Wattle and daub, a technique involving woven wooden stakes covered with a mixture of clay, mud, and straw, was used for interior walls and partitions
• Post-and-beam construction, which utilizes vertical posts and horizontal beams to create a structural framework, allowed for larger and more stable buildings
• Mortise and tenon joints, which involve a projecting tenon fitting into a mortise hole, were used to connect wooden beams and posts securely
• Thatched roofs, made of woven reeds or straw, were used in some early colonial buildings but were eventually replaced by wooden shingles or clay tiles for better durability and fire resistance

Notable Structures and Landmarks

• St. Luke's Church in Smithfield, Virginia, built in 1632, is the oldest surviving English-built church in North America and features a simple rectangular plan with a wooden barrel-vaulted ceiling
• Paul Revere House in Boston, Massachusetts, built c. 1680, is a prime example of a New England colonial urban dwelling, with its wooden frame, central chimney, and clapboard siding
• Fairbanks House in Dedham, Massachusetts, built c. 1637, is the oldest surviving timber-frame house in North America and features a distinctive saltbox roof
• Wyckoff House in Brooklyn, New York, built c. 1652, is one of the oldest surviving examples of Dutch Colonial architecture in the United States, with its characteristic gambrel roof and Dutch doors
• Cabildo in New Orleans, Louisiana, built in 1799, is a significant example of Spanish Colonial architecture, featuring a mix of Baroque and Neoclassical elements
• Mission San Xavier del Bac near Tucson, Arizona, built in the late 18th century, is a stunning example of Spanish mission architecture, with its ornate Baroque facade and interior frescoes
• Drayton Hall in Charleston, South Carolina, built in 1738, is one of the finest examples of Georgian Palladian architecture in the United States, with its symmetrical facade and classical details
• Independence Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, built in 1753, is an iconic example of Georgian architecture and served as the meeting place for the Second Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention

Cultural and Environmental Impacts

• Colonial architecture was heavily influenced by the cultural backgrounds of the settlers, with each group bringing their own building traditions and styles from their countries of origin
• The availability of local materials, such as wood, stone, and clay, played a significant role in shaping regional architectural styles and construction techniques
• Climate and geography also had a significant impact on colonial architecture, with buildings designed to respond to local conditions such as harsh winters, hot summers, and high winds
  • New England houses often featured steeply pitched roofs to shed snow and central chimneys for efficient heating
  • Southern houses incorporated features like wide porches and tall windows to promote ventilation and shade in hot, humid climates
• The interaction between European settlers and Native Americans led to the exchange of building knowledge and techniques, with some colonial structures incorporating elements of Native American design
• The growth of slavery in the colonies, particularly in the South, led to the development of distinct architectural forms such as slave quarters and plantation houses
• Religious beliefs and practices also influenced colonial architecture, with churches and meeting houses serving as important community centers and reflecting the values of different denominations
• The increasing wealth and social stratification of colonial society was reflected in the architecture, with larger and more elaborate houses built by the elite, while more modest dwellings were constructed by the middle and lower classes

Legacy and Modern Interpretations

• Colonial architecture laid the foundation for the development of American architecture, with many of its elements and principles continuing to influence building design and construction today
• The preservation and restoration of colonial-era buildings has become an important aspect of American cultural heritage, with organizations like the National Trust for Historic Preservation working to protect and promote these structures
• Many modern architects have drawn inspiration from colonial architecture, incorporating elements like symmetrical facades, classical details, and traditional materials into contemporary designs
• The influence of colonial architecture can be seen in various revival styles that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Colonial Revival, Dutch Colonial Revival, and Spanish Colonial Revival
• The study of colonial architecture has also provided valuable insights into the social, cultural, and economic history of early America, helping to shed light on the lives of both the colonists and the indigenous peoples they encountered
• The legacy of colonial architecture extends beyond the United States, with many former European colonies around the world featuring similar architectural styles and influences
• The ongoing dialogue between past and present in American architecture continues to shape the built environment, with colonial architecture serving as an enduring source of inspiration and a testament to the nation's rich and diverse history