🏜️American Literature – 1860 to Present Unit 6 – Poetry and Poetic Forms

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Poetry is a form of literary art that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meaning, emotions, and ideas
• Verse is a single metrical line in a poetic composition, distinguished from prose by the number of syllables in each line
• Stanza is a grouped set of lines within a poem, usually set off from other stanzas by a blank line or indentation
• Rhyme is the repetition of syllables, typically at the end of a verse line, with similar-sounding syllables (love/dove, moon/June)
• Meter is the rhythmic structure of a verse, composed of feet with a specific number of syllables in each foot
  • Common meters include iambic pentameter (five pairs of syllables, with stress on the second syllable) and trochaic tetrameter (four pairs of syllables, with stress on the first syllable)
• Free verse is poetry that does not adhere to a regular meter or rhyme scheme, allowing for more flexibility in structure and expression
• Figurative language uses words in a way that deviates from their literal meaning to convey a more complex or abstract idea (metaphors, similes, personification)
• Imagery is the use of vivid and descriptive language to appeal to the reader's senses and create mental pictures

Historical Context and Influences

• The American Civil War (1861-1865) had a profound impact on literature, with poets reflecting on themes of loss, sacrifice, and the nation's identity
• The Industrial Revolution and rapid urbanization in the late 19th century influenced poets to explore the relationship between nature and technology
• World War I (1914-1918) and the Lost Generation of writers who came of age during this period, such as Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald, shaped modernist poetry
• The Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s) was a cultural movement that celebrated African American art, music, and literature, with poets like Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen at the forefront
• The Great Depression (1929-1939) and the social and economic challenges it presented were reflected in the works of poets like William Carlos Williams and Marianne Moore
• World War II (1939-1945) and the atomic age that followed influenced poets to grapple with themes of existentialism, absurdism, and the human condition
• The Civil Rights Movement (1954-1968) and the struggle for racial equality inspired a new generation of African American poets, such as Maya Angelou and Gwendolyn Brooks
• Postmodernism (1960s-present) challenged traditional forms and conventions, with poets experimenting with language, structure, and meaning

Major Poetic Movements

• Transcendentalism (1830s-1850s) emphasized the importance of nature, individuality, and spiritual experience, with poets like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau
• Realism (1860s-1890s) sought to depict the world as it was, without idealization or romanticism, with poets like Emily Dickinson and Stephen Crane
• Modernism (1890s-1940s) rejected traditional forms and conventions in favor of experimentation and innovation, with poets like T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound
  • Imagism, a subset of modernism, focused on clear, concise language and vivid imagery, with poets like H.D. (Hilda Doolittle) and Amy Lowell
• The Beat Generation (1950s) rebelled against conformity and materialism, with poets like Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac embracing spontaneity and spirituality
• Confessional poetry (1950s-1960s) explored the poet's personal experiences and emotions, often dealing with taboo subjects, with poets like Sylvia Plath and Anne Sexton
• The Black Arts Movement (1960s-1970s) promoted African American pride and cultural identity, with poets like Amiri Baraka and Sonia Sanchez
• Language poetry (1970s-present) focuses on the materiality of language itself, with poets like Lyn Hejinian and Charles Bernstein experimenting with syntax and meaning

Prominent Poets and Their Works

• Walt Whitman (1819-1892) is known for his groundbreaking work "Leaves of Grass," which celebrated the individual and the American experience
  • Notable poems include "Song of Myself," "I Hear America Singing," and "O Captain! My Captain!"
• Emily Dickinson (1830-1886) is famous for her innovative use of form and syntax, exploring themes of death, immortality, and the inner life
  • Notable poems include "Hope is the thing with feathers," "Because I could not stop for Death," and "I'm Nobody! Who are you?"
• Robert Frost (1874-1963) is celebrated for his depictions of rural New England life and his use of colloquial language and traditional forms
  • Notable poems include "The Road Not Taken," "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening," and "Mending Wall"
• T.S. Eliot (1888-1965) is a central figure in modernist poetry, known for his complex and allusive works that explore the fragmentation of modern society
  • Notable poems include "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," "The Waste Land," and "Four Quartets"
• Langston Hughes (1901-1967) was a key figure in the Harlem Renaissance, known for his poems that celebrate African American culture and experience
  • Notable poems include "The Negro Speaks of Rivers," "Harlem (Dream Deferred)," and "I, Too"
• Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) is a confessional poet known for her intense and emotionally charged works that explore themes of mental illness, identity, and femininity
  • Notable poems include "Daddy," "Lady Lazarus," and "The Applicant"
• Maya Angelou (1928-2014) is celebrated for her poems that address issues of race, identity, and social justice, often drawing on her own experiences as an African American woman
  • Notable poems include "Still I Rise," "Phenomenal Woman," and "On the Pulse of Morning"

Poetic Forms and Structures

• Sonnet is a 14-line poem with a specific rhyme scheme, typically exploring themes of love or devotion
  • English (Shakespearean) sonnets have three quatrains and a couplet, with an ABAB CDCD EFEF GG rhyme scheme
  • Italian (Petrarchan) sonnets have an octave and a sestet, with an ABBAABBA CDECDE or ABBAABBA CDCDCD rhyme scheme
• Villanelle is a 19-line poem with a strict repetition of certain lines and a specific rhyme scheme (ABA ABA ABA ABA ABA ABAA)
• Haiku is a Japanese form consisting of three unrhymed lines with a 5-7-5 syllable pattern, often focusing on nature or a moment in time
• Sestina is a complex form consisting of six six-line stanzas and a three-line envoi, with the end words of each stanza repeating in a specific pattern
• Ode is a lyrical poem that addresses and often praises a particular subject, with an elevated and formal style
• Elegy is a reflective poem that laments the loss of a person, place, or thing, often expressing sorrow and admiration
• Epic is a long narrative poem that tells the story of a hero's adventures and often reflects the values and culture of a particular society
• Prose poem is a poem written in prose form, without line breaks or a regular meter, but still employing poetic techniques and imagery

Literary Devices and Techniques

• Metaphor is a comparison between two unlike things, suggesting that one thing is another (love is a battlefield)
• Simile is a comparison between two unlike things using "like" or "as" (her eyes were like stars)
• Personification is the attribution of human qualities or emotions to non-human objects or abstract ideas (the wind whispered through the trees)
• Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in a series of words (the slithering, slimy snake)
• Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds within words (the light of the fire)
• Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds within words (pitter-patter, chitter-chatter)
• Onomatopoeia is the use of words that imitate the sounds they describe (buzz, hiss, whisper)
• Hyperbole is an exaggeration or overstatement used for emphasis or effect (I've told you a million times)
• Understatement is the presentation of something as being smaller or less important than it actually is, often for ironic effect (it's just a scratch, when referring to a serious injury)
• Irony is the use of words to express something different from, and often opposite to, their literal meaning (saying "what a beautiful day" during a thunderstorm)
  • Verbal irony is when a speaker says one thing but means another
  • Situational irony is when the outcome of a situation is different from what was expected
  • Dramatic irony is when the audience knows something that the characters do not

Themes and Subject Matter

• Nature and the environment, exploring the relationship between humans and the natural world, as well as the beauty and power of nature itself
• Identity and the self, delving into questions of personal identity, self-discovery, and the search for meaning and purpose in life
• Love and relationships, expressing the joys, sorrows, and complexities of romantic, familial, and platonic love
• Death and mortality, grappling with the inevitability of death, the grief of loss, and the desire for immortality or legacy
• Social and political issues, addressing topics such as race, gender, class, war, and social justice, often as a means of critique or calls for change
• Spirituality and religion, exploring questions of faith, doubt, and the human relationship to the divine or transcendent
• Memory and nostalgia, reflecting on the past, childhood, and the passage of time, often with a sense of longing or bittersweet remembrance
• The human condition, examining the universal experiences, emotions, and challenges that define what it means to be human, such as suffering, joy, hope, and despair

Analysis and Interpretation Strategies

• Close reading involves carefully examining the text, paying attention to word choice, imagery, structure, and other literary devices to uncover layers of meaning
• Contextual analysis considers the historical, social, and cultural context in which a poem was written, and how that context shapes its meaning and significance
• Biographical analysis looks at the poet's life experiences, influences, and personal history to shed light on the themes and ideas in their work
• Comparative analysis examines how different poets or poems approach similar themes, forms, or techniques, highlighting similarities and differences
• Thematic analysis identifies and traces the development of central themes throughout a poem or a collection of poems
• Formalist analysis focuses on the poem's structure, form, and literary devices, examining how these elements contribute to the overall meaning and effect
• Reader-response analysis considers the reader's personal reactions, interpretations, and emotional responses to a poem, acknowledging the role of the reader in creating meaning
• Psychological analysis applies psychological theories and concepts to the interpretation of a poem, exploring the unconscious desires, fears, and motivations of the poet or the characters within the poem
• Gender analysis examines how gender roles, stereotypes, and power dynamics are represented and challenged within a poem, often through a feminist or masculinity studies lens
• Postcolonial analysis looks at how poems engage with issues of colonialism, imperialism, and cultural identity, often focusing on the experiences and perspectives of marginalized or oppressed groups