🗡️Ancient Greece Unit 1 – Introduction to Ancient Greece

Key Historical Periods

• Neolithic Period (7000-3000 BCE) marked the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities
  • Domestication of animals and cultivation of crops (wheat, barley, lentils) allowed for more stable food sources
  • Development of pottery and simple stone tools facilitated food storage and preparation
• Bronze Age (3000-1100 BCE) witnessed the rise of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations
  • Minoan civilization (2700-1450 BCE) on the island of Crete known for its elaborate palaces (Knossos), vibrant frescoes, and advanced water management systems
  • Mycenaean civilization (1600-1100 BCE) on mainland Greece characterized by fortified citadels (Mycenae, Tiryns), linear B script, and extensive trade networks
• Dark Ages (1100-800 BCE) followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization
  • Decline in population, trade, and cultural achievements due to unknown factors (possibly invasions, natural disasters, or social upheaval)
  • Emergence of the Greek alphabet adapted from the Phoenician script
• Archaic Period (800-480 BCE) marked the rise of the city-states (poleis) and the beginning of Greek colonization
  • Establishment of colonies throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions for trade and resource acquisition
  • Development of hoplite warfare and the phalanx formation
• Classical Period (480-323 BCE) encompassed the height of Greek civilization
  • Persian Wars (490-479 BCE) united the Greek city-states against the Persian Empire
  • Golden Age of Athens (460-430 BCE) under the leadership of Pericles saw the flourishing of art, architecture, literature, and philosophy
  • Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) between Athens and Sparta weakened the Greek city-states
• Hellenistic Period (323-146 BCE) followed the conquests of Alexander the Great
  • Spread of Greek culture and language throughout the Mediterranean and Near East
  • Rise of the Hellenistic kingdoms (Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Empire, Antigonid Macedonia) after Alexander's death
  • Eventual conquest of the Greek world by the Roman Republic

Major City-States and Their Cultures

• Athens known for its democratic system of government, cultural achievements, and intellectual pursuits
  • Acropolis served as the religious and cultural center of the city, housing the Parthenon and other temples
  • Agora functioned as the main marketplace and gathering place for political discussions and debates
  • Patronage of the arts, literature, and philosophy under the leadership of Pericles during the Golden Age
• Sparta renowned for its militaristic society and strict social hierarchy
  • Spartan boys underwent rigorous military training (agoge) from the age of 7 to become skilled warriors
  • Women enjoyed greater freedom and education compared to other Greek city-states to maintain the household while men were at war
  • Spartans emphasized physical fitness, discipline, and obedience to the state above individual pursuits
• Thebes emerged as a major power in the 4th century BCE under the leadership of Epaminondas
  • Defeated Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE) using innovative military tactics (oblique order)
  • Sacred Band of Thebes, an elite unit of 150 pairs of male lovers, renowned for their bravery and loyalty
• Corinth prospered as a center of trade and commerce due to its strategic location on the Isthmus of Corinth
  • Diolkos, a paved roadway, allowed ships to be hauled across the isthmus, saving time and avoiding the perilous sea route
  • Known for its ornate Corinthian order of architecture, characterized by elaborate capitals with acanthus leaves
• Delphi served as a major religious center and home to the Oracle of Apollo
  • Greeks from all city-states consulted the oracle for guidance on important matters (wars, colonization, personal issues)
  • Pythian Games, one of the four Panhellenic Games, held every four years in honor of Apollo
• Olympia hosted the Olympic Games every four years, attracting athletes and spectators from across the Greek world
  • Athletes competed in various events (running, wrestling, boxing, chariot racing) for glory and olive wreath crowns
  • Sacred truce (ekecheiria) declared during the games to allow safe travel for participants and spectators

Greek Mythology and Religion

• Polytheistic belief system centered around the Twelve Olympians, the major deities who resided on Mount Olympus
  • Zeus, king of the gods and ruler of the sky, known for his thunderbolts and numerous love affairs
  • Hera, queen of the gods and goddess of marriage and childbirth, often depicted as jealous and vengeful towards Zeus's lovers
  • Athena, goddess of wisdom, war, and crafts, born fully armed from Zeus's head after he swallowed her mother Metis
  • Apollo, god of music, poetry, prophecy, and healing, associated with the sun and the Oracle of Delphi
  • Artemis, goddess of the hunt, wilderness, and childbirth, often depicted with a bow and arrow and accompanied by a deer
  • Poseidon, god of the sea, earthquakes, and horses, wielding a trident and capable of causing storms and shipwrecks
• Mythological stories used to explain natural phenomena, teach moral lessons, and preserve cultural heritage
  • Creation myths (Theogony) described the origin of the universe and the birth of the gods from primordial deities (Chaos, Gaia, Eros)
  • Heroic tales (Trojan War, Labors of Heracles) celebrated the achievements and struggles of demigods and mortals
  • Tragic myths (Oedipus, Medea) explored the consequences of human flaws and the inescapable nature of fate
• Religious practices and rituals aimed to honor the gods and ensure their favor
  • Sacrifices of animals (oxen, sheep, goats) and offerings of food, drink, and valuables made at temples and altars
  • Festivals and processions held throughout the year to celebrate specific deities and mark important events (Panathenaea, Dionysia, Eleusinian Mysteries)
  • Mystery cults (Orphism, Pythagoreanism) offered initiates the promise of a better afterlife through secret rituals and teachings
• Oracles and divination used to communicate with the gods and seek guidance on important matters
  • Oracle of Apollo at Delphi consulted by individuals and city-states for advice and prophecies, delivered by the Pythia (priestess) in a trance-like state
  • Oracles of Zeus at Dodona and Olympia interpreted the rustling of oak leaves and the behavior of sacrificial animals to discern the god's will
• Temples served as the dwelling places of the gods and the focal points of religious life
  • Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens dedicated to Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin), housing a monumental gold and ivory statue of the goddess
  • Temple of Apollo at Delphi, home to the famous oracle and the omphalos (navel stone) marking the center of the world
  • Temple of Zeus at Olympia, site of the Olympic Games and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, featuring a colossal statue of Zeus

Political Systems and Governance

• Monarchy prevalent in the early stages of Greek history, with kings ruling over city-states and regions
  • Mycenaean kings (wanax) held religious, military, and administrative authority, residing in fortified palaces and supported by a complex bureaucracy
  • Homeric epics (Iliad, Odyssey) depict the ideal of the "hero-king" (Agamemnon, Odysseus) who leads by virtue of his strength, courage, and wisdom
• Aristocracy emerged as a form of government in many city-states during the Archaic Period
  • Rule by a small group of noble families who derived their power from land ownership, military prowess, and lineage
  • Areopagus in Athens, a council of former archons (chief magistrates), wielded significant influence over political and judicial matters
• Tyranny arose in some city-states as a response to social and economic inequalities
  • Tyrants seized power through force or popular support, often implementing reforms to benefit the common people
  • Peisistratos in Athens (r. 546-527 BCE) sponsored public works projects, religious festivals, and the arts, laying the foundation for the city's future greatness
• Democracy developed in Athens under the reforms of Solon, Cleisthenes, and Pericles
  • Solon (c. 594 BCE) canceled debts, freed enslaved Athenians, and divided citizens into four classes based on wealth, granting political rights accordingly
  • Cleisthenes (c. 508 BCE) introduced isonomia (equality before the law) and established the Council of 500 and the system of ostracism to prevent tyranny
  • Pericles (r. 461-429 BCE) expanded citizen participation in government, instituting pay for public offices and jury service
• Oligarchy characterized the political system of Sparta and other city-states
  • Rule by a small group of wealthy and influential citizens, often with a focus on military prowess and conservative values
  • Spartan government consisted of two hereditary kings, a council of elders (gerousia), and an assembly of male citizens (apella)
  • Ephors, five annually elected officials, supervised the kings and ensured adherence to Spartan laws and customs
• Federal states and leagues formed to address common interests and defend against external threats
  • Delian League, led by Athens, initially created to counter the Persian threat but later transformed into an Athenian empire
  • Peloponnesian League, headed by Sparta, a defensive alliance of city-states on the Peloponnese peninsula
  • Achaean League and Aetolian League, federal states that emerged in the Hellenistic Period to resist Macedonian and Roman domination

Art, Architecture, and Literature

• Sculpture evolved from stylized, abstract forms to naturalistic and idealized representations of the human body
  • Kouros and Kore statues of the Archaic Period depicted male and female figures with rigid, frontal poses and archaic smiles
  • Classical sculptures (Kritios Boy, Doryphoros) achieved a balance between idealism and realism, emphasizing proportion, symmetry, and contrapposto stance
  • Hellenistic sculptures (Winged Victory of Samothrace, Laocoön and His Sons) conveyed heightened emotions, dynamic movement, and dramatic expressions
• Pottery served both functional and artistic purposes, with distinct styles and techniques developing over time
  • Geometric style (900-700 BCE) featured abstract, linear designs and stylized human and animal figures
  • Black-figure style (700-530 BCE) depicted scenes from mythology and daily life using black silhouettes on a red background, with details incised and painted in white and purple
  • Red-figure style (530-330 BCE) reversed the color scheme, allowing for greater detail, shading, and expression in the painted figures
• Architecture centered around the construction of temples, public buildings, and urban planning
  • Doric order, the earliest and simplest of the three classical orders, characterized by sturdy columns with plain capitals and a frieze of alternating triglyphs and metopes
  • Ionic order, more slender and decorative, featuring columns with volute capitals and a continuous frieze
  • Corinthian order, the most ornate, distinguished by columns with elaborate capitals adorned with acanthus leaves
• Literature encompassed a wide range of genres, from epic poetry to drama, history, and philosophy
  • Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, epic poems that recount the events of the Trojan War and Odysseus's journey home, considered the foundational works of Greek literature
  • Lyric poetry, composed for performance with musical accompaniment, explored themes of love, war, and politics (Sappho, Pindar)
  • Tragedy, a dramatic genre that dealt with weighty themes and the human condition, developed by playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides
  • Comedy, a satirical and often bawdy genre that poked fun at contemporary figures and issues, exemplified by the works of Aristophanes
  • Historiography, pioneered by Herodotus and Thucydides, sought to record and analyze historical events and their causes
• Frescoes and mosaics adorned the walls and floors of public buildings, temples, and private homes
  • Minoan frescoes from the Palace of Knossos depict lively scenes of bull-leaping, processions, and nature
  • Mosaics, made from small pieces of colored stone or glass (tesserae), created intricate designs and pictorial scenes
  • Alexander Mosaic from the House of the Faun in Pompeii, a Roman copy of a Hellenistic original, depicts the Battle of Issus between Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia

Philosophy and Scientific Advancements

• Pre-Socratic philosophers sought to explain the nature of the universe and the fundamental principles governing it
  • Thales of Miletus (c. 624-546 BCE) proposed that water was the primary substance from which all things originated
  • Pythagoras (c. 570-495 BCE) and his followers believed in the transmigration of souls and the mystical significance of numbers
  • Democritus (c. 460-370 BCE) developed the atomic theory, positing that all matter consists of indivisible particles (atoms) moving in a void
• Socrates (c. 470-399 BCE) emphasized the importance of self-knowledge, critical thinking, and ethical behavior
  • Socratic method of questioning (elenchus) aimed to expose the inconsistencies and limitations of his interlocutors' beliefs
  • Convicted of impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens, sentenced to death by drinking hemlock
• Plato (c. 428-348 BCE), a student of Socrates, developed the theory of Forms and the ideal state
  • Theory of Forms posits that the material world is an imperfect reflection of eternal, unchanging, and perfect Forms (e.g., Beauty, Justice, Goodness)
  • Ideal state, outlined in The Republic, would be ruled by philosopher-kings and structured according to the principles of wisdom, courage, and moderation
• Aristotle (384-322 BCE), a student of Plato, made significant contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics, and natural science
  • Syllogistic logic, a system of deductive reasoning based on the relationship between premises and conclusions
  • Four causes (material, formal, efficient, and final) used to explain the nature and purpose of things
  • Empirical approach to the study of biology, zoology, and physics, based on observation and classification
• Mathematics and geometry flourished, with notable figures such as Euclid, Archimedes, and Pythagoras making lasting contributions
  • Euclid (c. 300 BCE) compiled and systematized geometric knowledge in his Elements, which served as the standard textbook for over 2,000 years
  • Archimedes (c. 287-212 BCE) made groundbreaking discoveries in mathematics and physics, including the principle of buoyancy and the calculation of pi
  • Pythagorean theorem ($a^2 + b^2 = c^2$) states that the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides
• Astronomy advanced through the work of Aristarchus, Eratosthenes, and Hipparchus
  • Aristarchus (c. 310-230 BCE) proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system, with the Earth and other planets revolving around the Sun
  • Eratosthenes (c. 276-194 BCE) calculated the circumference of the Earth using the angle of the Sun's rays at different locations
  • Hipparchus (c. 190-120 BCE) created the first comprehensive star catalog and discovered the precession of the equinoxes
• Medicine progressed from religious and magical beliefs to a more rational and empirical approach
  • Hippocratic Corpus, a collection of medical texts attributed to Hippocrates