12.4 Siege Warfare and Fortifications

Greek siege warfare evolved from simple blockades to complex operations using advanced technology. Armies developed tactics like circumvallation and assault equipment to overcome fortifications. These methods became crucial in conquests, changing the dynamics of warfare.

Cities responded with increasingly sophisticated defenses, including thick walls, towers, and innovative architectural features. Prolonged sieges caused severe hardships for civilians and had significant economic and military consequences, reshaping Greek warfare and conquest strategies.

Siege Tactics in Ancient Greece

Circumvallation and Contravallation

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• Circumvallation involved building a wall around the besieged city to cut it off from outside help and wait for surrender
• Contravallation added a second wall facing outwards to protect the besieging army from external threats
• These tactics aimed to isolate the city and prevent reinforcements or supplies from reaching the defenders
• Examples of circumvallation can be seen in the Spartan siege of Plataea (429-427 BCE) during the Peloponnesian War

Assault Techniques and Equipment

• Siege towers and ladders were used to scale city walls, allowing attackers to bypass lower defenses
• Battering rams, both handheld and suspended, were employed to break through fortifications by repeated impact
• Wheeled siege towers could be several stories tall, with the top level serving as a platform for archers and slingers
• Battering rams were often protected by a covering (vinea) to shield operators from enemy missiles
• Tunneling under walls to weaken foundations or gain entry was a common tactic, requiring skilled sappers
• Large earthen ramps were constructed to surmount fortifications, as used by Alexander the Great at Tyre (332 BCE)

Artillery and Special Weapons

• Greek armies utilized heavy stone-throwing catapults like lithoboloi and oxybeles to bombard city defenses from a distance
• Torsion-powered artillery like palintones and euthytones used twisted sinew to propel projectiles with great force
• Incendiary weapons such as flaming arrows and smoke screens were used to damage wooden structures or create diversions during assaults
• Chemical weapons like quicklime and sulfur were sometimes employed to disable defenders, as at Plataea and Delium

Fortifications for Defense

City Walls and Towers

• Most Greek city-states, especially after the 5th century BCE, had extensive fortifications including thick stone walls, towers, and gates to withstand sieges
• Curtain walls formed the outer defenses, encircling the city's perimeter to provide comprehensive protection
• The acropolis, a fortified hilltop citadel, provided a final fallback position for defenders if outer walls were breached
• Walls were often built in two parallel sections with a space between them (emplekton) filled with rubble for extra strength
• Towers projected from the walls at regular intervals to provide enfilading fire against attackers trying to scale or undermine them

Defensive Architectural Features

• Innovative defensive features were incorporated into fortification design to counter siege tactics
• Stone projections (overhanging machicolations) allowed defenders to drop rocks on attackers at the base of walls
• Slits for archers (loopholes) were narrow vertical openings that provided protection while allowing missile fire
• Underground cisterns and water reservoirs ensured a protected water supply during prolonged sieges
• Ditches, palisades, and smaller outposts in surrounding areas served as first lines of defense to slow enemy progress
• Effective fortifications allowed defenders to outlast besieging armies that had limited food supplies and were exposed to the elements and disease

Siege Warfare in Greek Conquests

Changing Military Dynamics

• Sieges became more prominent from the late 5th century BCE as walls rendered hoplite battles less decisive
• The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) featured several major sieges, like the Athenian siege of Syracuse
• Sparta's inability to conduct successful sieges, due to lack of naval power and siege equipment, contributed to its limited territorial control compared to Athens, despite military preeminence on land
• Naval blockades were a key component of siege strategy for major maritime powers like Athens that could prevent cities from being resupplied by sea, as seen at Potidaea (432 BCE)

Macedonian Siege Innovations

• The growing sophistication of siege engines and tactics made previously impenetrable defenses vulnerable
• Philip II of Macedon's development of effective artillery and siege towers allowed him to conquer much of Greece
• Polyidus of Thessaly, Philip's chief engineer, invented the torsion catapult around 340 BCE which launched projectiles with great power
• Siege warfare was crucial to Alexander the Great's conquests, with his army's siege train and engineers enabling victories over fortified positions in Tyre, Gaza, and the Sogdian Rock
• Alexander's army successfully besieged the island city of Tyre by constructing a kilometer-long causeway to bring siege towers and battering rams within range

Impact of Prolonged Sieges

Civilian Hardships and Atrocities

• Sieges inflicted severe hardships as trapped populations faced food shortages, unsanitary conditions, and disease epidemics
• Thucydides vividly described the great suffering in cities besieged during the Peloponnesian War, like the plague in Athens
• Victorious besieging armies sometimes enslaved or massacred city populations as punishment and a warning to others, as seen at Melos (416 BCE) and Thebes (335 BCE)
• Fear of such brutality was a powerful motivator for cities to surrender rather than endure a prolonged siege
• The Athenians' horrific treatment of Melos, where they executed all men and enslaved the women and children, served as a cautionary example of resistance

Economic and Military Consequences

• Prolonged sieges disrupted agriculture and trade, damaging local economies and causing shortages of vital goods
• Desperate cities spent considerable resources on walls and stockpiles that then couldn't support offensive campaigns
• Sieges served as a form of psychological warfare, demoralizing the besieged population and encouraging capitulation before direct assault
• Some cities, like Potidaea, surrendered after years of siege to avoid total destruction when facing starvation
• Lengthy sieges occupied significant manpower and resources that could otherwise be deployed for other campaigns, limiting overall military capabilities
• The two-year Spartan siege of Plataea required a large garrison that was unavailable for action elsewhere