13.2 Major Religious Texts and Their Historical Contexts

Ancient religions relied on sacred texts to convey beliefs and practices. These writings, like the Enuma Elish and Torah, shaped worldviews and provided guidance for followers. They offer insights into the diverse spiritual landscapes of ancient cultures.

From creation myths to philosophical treatises, religious texts reflect the values and concerns of their societies. The Vedas, Quran, and Bible continue to influence billions today, showcasing the enduring impact of these ancient writings on human thought and behavior.

Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Mesopotamian Creation and Flood Myths

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• Enuma Elish: Babylonian creation myth that describes the origins of the universe and the gods, featuring the god Marduk's rise to power after defeating the primordial goddess Tiamat
• Epic of Gilgamesh: Sumerian epic poem that follows the adventures of the hero-king Gilgamesh, including his quest for immortality and the story of a great flood (similar to the biblical flood narrative)

Egyptian Funerary Texts

• Egyptian Book of the Dead: Collection of funerary texts and spells designed to guide the deceased through the underworld and ensure their successful afterlife, often featuring the god Osiris (ruler of the underworld)

Jewish Sectarian Texts

• Dead Sea Scrolls: Collection of ancient Jewish manuscripts discovered near the Dead Sea, including biblical texts, apocryphal works, and sectarian documents that provide insight into the diverse religious landscape of Second Temple Judaism (Essenes)

Abrahamic Religious Texts

Jewish Sacred Texts

• Torah: The central sacred text of Judaism, consisting of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy), believed to have been revealed to Moses by God on Mount Sinai

Christian Sacred Texts

• Bible: The sacred text of Christianity, consisting of the Old Testament (largely the same as the Hebrew Bible) and the New Testament, which focuses on the life, teachings, and death of Jesus Christ, as well as the early Christian church (Gospels, Acts, Epistles)

Islamic Sacred Texts

• Quran: The central sacred text of Islam, believed to be the direct word of God as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel, consisting of 114 surahs (chapters) that cover various aspects of faith, ethics, and law

Indian Religious Texts

Hindu Sacred Texts

• Vedas: The oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, consisting of four collections (Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda) of hymns, prayers, and ritual instructions, forming the basis for Hindu philosophy and theology
• Upanishads: A collection of philosophical texts that elaborate on the ideas presented in the Vedas, exploring concepts such as Brahman (the ultimate reality), Atman (the self), and the nature of existence (Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya)

Hindu Philosophical Texts

• Bhagavad Gita: A sacred Hindu text that is part of the larger epic Mahabharata, presenting a dialogue between the warrior Arjuna and the god Krishna, discussing themes of duty, devotion, and the nature of the divine

Chinese Philosophical Texts

Divination and Cosmological Texts

• I Ching: An ancient Chinese divination text that consists of 64 hexagrams, each representing a different state of being or situation, used for guidance and decision-making, and reflecting Taoist and Confucian philosophies

Taoist Texts

• Tao Te Ching: A fundamental text of Taoism attributed to the sage Laozi, which presents the concept of the Tao (the way) and emphasizes the virtues of simplicity, spontaneity, and non-action (wu wei)

Zoroastrian Texts

• Avesta: The primary collection of sacred texts in Zoroastrianism, containing liturgical works, hymns (Gathas), and theological and mythological texts, attributed to the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra)