6.4 The Second Triumvirate

The Second Triumvirate marked a crucial turning point in Roman history. Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus formed this powerful alliance, dividing control of the Roman world and wielding unprecedented authority.

Unlike its predecessor, this triumvirate was legally sanctioned, openly bypassing traditional checks and balances. It ushered in an era of proscriptions, reshaping Roman society and paving the way for the fall of the Republic.

The Second Triumvirate: Members and Roles

Key Members and Their Backgrounds

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• Second Triumvirate formed in 43 BCE consisted of Octavian (later Augustus), Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
• Octavian leveraged his position as Julius Caesar's adopted heir to gain political influence and military support
• Mark Antony controlled significant legions and held sway over many of Caesar's veterans as a skilled military commander
• Marcus Aemilius Lepidus contributed his position as Pontifex Maximus and control over several western provinces to the alliance
  • Pontifex Maximus served as the high priest of the Roman state religion
  • Western provinces under Lepidus' control included Hispania and Gallia Narbonensis

Power Distribution and Legal Framework

• Triumvirs divided the Roman world among themselves
  • Octavian took the West (including Italy and Gaul)
  • Antony received the East (including Greece and Asia Minor)
  • Lepidus obtained Africa (modern-day Tunisia and western Libya)
• Lex Titia officially sanctioned the power-sharing agreement
  • Granted triumvirs extraordinary powers for five years
  • Aimed to restore order to the state
  • Allowed them to appoint magistrates and issue decrees with force of law
• Alliance initially set for five-year term, later renewed for an additional five years in 38 BCE

Second Triumvirate vs First Triumvirate

Structural and Legal Differences

• First Triumvirate (60 BCE) operated as an informal political alliance
• Second Triumvirate received legal sanction and constitutional authority
  • Formally recognized by the Senate and the people
  • Granted powers through the Lex Titia
• First Triumvirate maintained a facade of Republican norms
• Second Triumvirate openly wielded dictatorial powers
  • Bypassed traditional checks and balances
  • Issued decrees without senatorial approval

Composition and Objectives

• First Triumvirate consisted of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus
• Second Triumvirate comprised Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus
• Both alliances formed to consolidate power and overcome political obstacles
• Second Triumvirate more overtly aimed at eliminating opposition
  • Implemented proscriptions to remove political enemies
  • Focused on restructuring the Roman state

Duration and Consequences

• First Triumvirate lasted about a decade (60-53 BCE)
• Second Triumvirate effectively ended within five years, though technically renewed once
• Both alliances led to internal conflicts
  • First Triumvirate resulted in civil war between Caesar and Pompey
  • Second Triumvirate's collapse led to conflict between Octavian and Antony
• Second Triumvirate's dissolution had more far-reaching consequences for the Republic
  • Directly led to the end of the Republican system
  • Paved the way for the establishment of the Roman Empire under Augustus

Proscriptions in Roman Society

Implementation and Scope

• Proscriptions involved lists of political enemies marked for execution and property confiscation
• Reminiscent of Sulla's earlier proscriptions in 82-81 BCE
• Approximately 300 senators and 2,000 equites proscribed
  • Decimated the traditional Roman elite
  • Reshaped the political landscape by removing opposition
• Notable victims included Cicero, symbolizing the silencing of Republican opposition
  • Cicero's death marked the end of free speech in the late Republic
  • His hands and tongue were cut off and displayed in the Forum Romanum

Purposes and Effects

• Proscriptions served multiple purposes for the triumvirs
  • Eliminated political opposition and potential threats
  • Funded military campaigns through confiscated wealth
  • Rewarded supporters with confiscated property
• Created a climate of fear and mistrust in Roman society
  • Eroded social bonds and traditional Roman values (fides, pietas)
  • Encouraged betrayal, even among family members
• Altered social hierarchies and economic structures
  • Redistributed wealth and property on a massive scale
  • Created opportunities for social mobility among triumvirs' supporters
• Weakened faith in Republican institutions
  • Demonstrated the inability of traditional systems to protect citizens
  • Normalized political violence as a means of power consolidation

Consequences of the Second Triumvirate

Political and Institutional Changes

• Effectively ended the pretense of Republican governance
  • Openly wielded autocratic power
  • Bypassed traditional checks and balances (Senate, popular assemblies)
• Accelerated the militarization of Roman politics
  • Each triumvir commanded significant armed forces loyal to them personally
  • Shifted power base from civilian institutions to military support
• Division of the Roman world set the stage for future conflicts
  • Particularly between Octavian and Antony
  • Led to the final civil war of the Republic (32-30 BCE)

Social and Cultural Impact

• Eroded public faith in Republican institutions
  • Demonstrated the inability of the traditional system to maintain order
  • Created disillusionment with Republican ideals of shared governance
• Normalized extra-constitutional power arrangements
  • Set precedent for future imperial governance structures
  • Weakened the importance of traditional offices and career paths (cursus honorum)
• Rise of Octavian as the dominant political force
  • Laid groundwork for his transformation into Augustus
  • Established the foundations of the Principate system

Long-term Legacy

• Final dismantling of Republican safeguards against autocracy
  • Concentration of power in the hands of a few individuals
  • Weakening of traditional checks on executive authority
• Paved the way for the transition to the Roman Empire
  • Established model of centralized power under a single ruler
  • Created precedent for military involvement in political succession
• Reshaped Roman political culture for centuries to come
  • Influenced the development of imperial administration
  • Altered the relationship between rulers and the ruled in the Roman world