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1.2 Key historical sources and historiography

11 min readjuly 30, 2024

Anglo-Saxon England is a treasure trove of historical sources. From chronicles and poetry to legal documents and archaeological finds, these materials offer a window into the lives of our early English ancestors. But like any old evidence, they come with their own quirks and challenges.

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Historians have been digging into these sources for centuries, each generation bringing new questions and methods. From early linguistic studies to modern debates on and state formation, our understanding of Anglo-Saxon England keeps evolving. It's a fascinating journey through time, piecing together the puzzle of our past.

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Primary Sources for Anglo-Saxon England

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Chronicles and Annals

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  • The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons
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  • Likely originally compiled in the late 9th century during the reign of
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  • Provides a historical record of events from the perspective of Anglo-Saxon scribes
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  • Includes accounts of battles, royal successions, religious events, and other significant occurrences
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  • Multiple versions exist, known as the Winchester, Peterborough, Abingdon, and Worcester Chronicles, each with some variations in content
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Old English Literature

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  • Old English poetry provides insight into the language, culture and values of Anglo-Saxon society
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  • is an epic poem featuring the hero Beowulf and his battles against the monster Grendel and a dragon
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  • The describes a historical battle between Anglo-Saxons and Vikings in 991 CE
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  • is an elegiac poem reflecting on themes of loss, exile and the transience of life
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  • is a religious poem written from the perspective of the cross on which Jesus was crucified
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  • Other significant Old English prose works include the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, and the works of Ælfric and Wulfstan
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Legal Documents and Law Codes

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  • issued by Anglo-Saxon kings are important sources for understanding the legal and social structures of the time
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  • The laws of (c. 602 CE) are the earliest surviving English law code
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  • issued a set of laws in the early 8th century
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  • Alfred the Great's law code (c. 893 CE) drew upon earlier codes and incorporated influences from biblical law
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  • Other significant legal texts include the laws of Edward the Elder, Æthelstan, and Cnut
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  • , wills, and writs provide further evidence of legal practices, land ownership, and social hierarchy
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Manuscripts and Artwork

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  • Illuminated contain examples of art, literature and religious writings that shed light on Anglo-Saxon culture and Christianity
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  • The Lindisfarne Gospels (c. 715 CE) feature intricate artistic decoration and an Old English gloss of the Latin text
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  • The is a 10th century anthology of Old English poetry, including elegies, riddles, and religious verses
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  • The Vercelli Book is a 10th century manuscript containing religious works in both prose and verse, including the poem The Dream of the Rood
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  • Other significant manuscripts include the , the , and the of Old English biblical poetry
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Archaeological Evidence

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  • Archaeological evidence provides material sources to complement the written record
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  • Grave goods such as weapons, jewelry, and clothing offer insight into Anglo-Saxon culture, social status, and trade
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  • Settlement reveals the layout, architecture, and development of Anglo-Saxon villages and towns
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  • Numismatic evidence, including Anglo-Saxon coins and coin hoards, provides information about the economy, trade, and political authority
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  • The , excavated in 1939, is one of the richest Anglo-Saxon archaeological finds, shedding light on early 7th century East Anglian culture and craftsmanship
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Historical Evidence: Reliability and Limitations

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Biases and Perspectives in Primary Sources

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  • Primary sources are direct evidence from the time period, but can reflect the biases, limited knowledge or intentions of the authors
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  • The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tends to focus on the deeds of kings and the nobility, providing limited insight into the lives of common people
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  • Bede's Ecclesiastical History is written from the perspective of a Christian monk and focuses primarily on the history of the church in England
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  • Old English poetry often features legendary and idealized depictions rather than strictly historical records
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  • Sources must be cross-referenced against other evidence to assess their reliability and gain a more complete understanding
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Manuscript Transmission and Survival

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  • Medieval manuscripts may have errors or alterations introduced in the process of copying, and the survival of sources is often fragmentary and incomplete
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  • Scribes may make unintentional errors or intentional changes to the text while copying manuscripts
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  • Some manuscripts are known only from later copies or fragments, with the original version lost
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  • The survival of manuscripts can be affected by factors such as fire, water damage, neglect, or deliberate destruction
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  • Textual analysis and comparison of multiple versions can help identify and account for changes and inconsistencies
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Interpreting Archaeological Evidence

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  • Archaeological evidence is direct material evidence, but its interpretation can be challenging
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  • The meaning and significance of artifacts is not always clear and may be open to multiple interpretations
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  • The archaeological record is incomplete, as many materials do not survive and some sites remain undiscovered
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  • Dating of artifacts can be uncertain, especially for earlier periods
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  • Archaeological evidence must be considered in the context of the site and in relation to other historical and environmental evidence
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Inconsistencies and Omissions in Sources

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  • The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has some inconsistencies and omissions, especially in the earlier entries
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  • The dating of events in the early parts of the Chronicle is sometimes inaccurate or contradictory
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  • The Chronicle is more detailed and reliable for the later Anglo-Saxon period, particularly the reign of Alfred the Great and his successors
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  • The Chronicle does not provide a complete or unbiased account of all significant events and may omit or downplay certain occurrences
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  • Comparison with other sources, such as Bede's Ecclesiastical History or other annals, can help identify and fill in gaps or inconsistencies
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Linguistic and Literary Challenges

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  • Old English poetry often uses figurative language, kennings, and other literary devices that can be difficult to interpret literally
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  • Kennings are metaphorical compound words, such as "whale-road" for the sea or "battle-sweat" for blood
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  • The poetic language and structure of Old English verse can make it challenging to extract precise historical details
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  • Some poems, such as Beowulf, blend historical elements with mythical or legendary material, complicating their use as historical sources
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  • Linguistic analysis and comparison with other sources can help clarify the meaning and context of Old English literary works
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Anglo-Saxon Historiography and Debates

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Early Modern Linguistic and Textual Scholarship

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  • In the 16th-17th centuries, Anglo-Saxon studies focused on linguistic analysis and editing of texts
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  • (c. 1515-1571) was an early scholar of Old English who compiled a dictionary and transcribed several manuscripts
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  • William Lambarde (1536-1601) published an edition of the Anglo-Saxon laws and wrote a work on Anglo-Saxon legal customs
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  • Sir Robert Cotton (1571-1631) collected and preserved many important Anglo-Saxon manuscripts in what became known as the Cotton library
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  • This early scholarship laid the foundation for later linguistic and historical study of Anglo-Saxon England
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19th Century Cultural and Nationalistic Approaches

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  • In the 19th century, cultural historians integrated Anglo-Saxon history into a broader narrative of Germanic and English national identity
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  • John Mitchell Kemble (1807-1857) published an influential edition of the Anglo-Saxon charters and emphasized the Germanic origins of English institutions
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  • (1823-1892) wrote a comprehensive history of the Norman Conquest and argued for the continuity of English institutions from the Anglo-Saxon period
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  • The study of Anglo-Saxon history was often tied to contemporary debates about English national identity and the nature of the English constitution
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  • This approach often romanticized the Anglo-Saxons as the founders of English liberty and democracy, while downplaying the impact of the Norman Conquest
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20th Century Administrative and Institutional Focus

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  • In the early 20th century, scholars emphasized the administrative and institutional continuities between Anglo-Saxon and later medieval England
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  • Sir Frank Stenton (1880-1967) published a comprehensive political and institutional history of Anglo-Saxon England that remained the standard reference work for decades
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  • (1922-2000) wrote extensively on Anglo-Saxon government, law, and social structure, stressing the sophistication and complexity of Anglo-Saxon institutions
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  • Other scholars, such as and , expanded the focus of Anglo-Saxon studies to include social, cultural, and religious history
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  • This approach provided a more detailed and nuanced understanding of Anglo-Saxon society, while also recognizing the significant changes brought about by the Norman Conquest
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Current Debates and Interdisciplinary Approaches

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  • Current debates often focus on the nature of Anglo-Saxon identity, kingship and state formation, and the impact of Scandinavian and Norman conquests
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  • Scholars have questioned the extent to which the Anglo-Saxons saw themselves as a distinct ethnic or cultural group, and how this identity evolved over time
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  • The nature of Anglo-Saxon kingship, including the extent of royal power, the role of the nobility, and the development of administrative institutions, remains a topic of ongoing debate
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  • The impact of the Viking and Norman conquests on Anglo-Saxon society, culture, and institutions is a subject of continued research and interpretation
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  • Ongoing work in archaeology, place-name studies, and other fields continues to extend knowledge of Anglo-Saxon society beyond the textual sources
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  • Archaeological evidence has provided new insights into settlement patterns, trade, and daily life in Anglo-Saxon England
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  • Place-name studies have shed light on the linguistic and cultural landscape of early medieval England, including the influence of Scandinavian and Celtic languages
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  • Paleographic and codicological analysis of manuscripts has refined our understanding of the production, circulation, and reception of texts in Anglo-Saxon England
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Key Scholars in Anglo-Saxon Studies

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Bede and Early Medieval Historiography

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  • Bede's 8th century "Ecclesiastical History of the English People" is the first substantial historical narrative focused on the Anglo-Saxons
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  • Written from the perspective of a Northumbrian Christian monk, the work traces the history of Christianity in England from the Roman period to Bede's own time
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  • Bede's work is a crucial source for early Anglo-Saxon history, particularly the conversion period and the development of the English church
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  • However, Bede's focus on religious history and his northern perspective mean that his work must be supplemented by other sources for a complete understanding of the period
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  • Bede's Ecclesiastical History set the stage for later medieval chroniclers, such as the compilers of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, who continued to record the history of England
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Sir Frank Stenton and the Foundations of Anglo-Saxon Studies

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  • Sir Frank Stenton's "Anglo-Saxon England," first published in 1943, is a landmark work that provides a comprehensive political and institutional history of the period
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  • Stenton's work covers the entire Anglo-Saxon period, from the earliest Germanic settlements to the Norman Conquest
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  • The book is notable for its detailed analysis of Anglo-Saxon government, law, and social structure, drawing on a wide range of textual and archaeological evidence
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  • Stenton's emphasis on the continuity of English institutions from the Anglo-Saxon period to the later Middle Ages has been influential, but also subject to criticism and revision by later scholars
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  • "Anglo-Saxon England" remains a foundational text in the field, though its interpretations have been updated and refined by subsequent scholarship
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Dorothy Whitelock and Social History

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  • Dorothy Whitelock's "The Beginnings of English Society," published in 1952, analyzes Anglo-Saxon and expands focus beyond kings and elites
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  • Whitelock's work examines the structure of Anglo-Saxon society, including the roles of kinship, lordship, and social hierarchy
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  • The book draws on a range of sources, including legal codes, charters, and literary works, to provide a detailed picture of daily life and social relations in Anglo-Saxon England
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  • Whitelock's attention to the experiences of ordinary people and the complexities of social organization has been influential in later social and cultural histories of the period
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  • Whitelock also made significant contributions to the study of Anglo-Saxon literature and language, editing and translating many key texts
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Peter Hunter Blair and Interdisciplinary Approaches

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  • Peter Hunter Blair's "An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England," first published in 1956, is an influential and widely-read overview of the period that integrates archaeological and artistic evidence
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  • Hunter Blair's work is notable for its interdisciplinary approach, drawing on historical, archaeological, and literary sources to provide a comprehensive picture of Anglo-Saxon society
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  • The book covers a wide range of topics, including the Roman and prehistoric background, the Germanic invasions, the development of the English church, and the impact of the Viking and Norman conquests
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  • Hunter Blair's clear and accessible style, along with his integration of visual and material evidence, has made his work popular with both scholars and general readers
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  • "An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England" has been revised and updated in subsequent editions, reflecting new discoveries and interpretations in the field
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James Campbell and Late 20th Century Scholarship

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  • 's edited collection "The Anglo-Saxons," published in 1982, compiles essays by leading late 20th century scholars on a range of themes in Anglo-Saxon history and culture
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  • The book includes contributions from scholars such as , Rosemary Cramp, and John Hines, covering topics such as kingship, law, religion, art, and archaeology
Top images from around the web for Primary Sources for Anglo-Saxon England
Top images from around the web for Primary Sources for Anglo-Saxon England
  • Campbell's own essay on the origins of the English state has been particularly influential, arguing for the early development of a centralized and effective system of government in Anglo-Saxon England
Top images from around the web for Primary Sources for Anglo-Saxon England
Top images from around the web for Primary Sources for Anglo-Saxon England
  • The interdisciplinary nature of the collection reflects the increasingly diverse and specialized approaches to Anglo-Saxon studies in the late 20th century
Top images from around the web for Primary Sources for Anglo-Saxon England
Top images from around the web for Primary Sources for Anglo-Saxon England
  • Campbell's work as an editor and contributor has helped to shape the direction of Anglo-Saxon scholarship, encouraging collaboration and dialogue between different subfields and methodologies
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© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.

© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.
Glossary
Glossary