Vision and hearing are crucial sensory systems that allow us to perceive and interact with our environment. The visual system processes light through specialized cells in the , transmitting information to the brain via the .
The auditory system converts sound waves into electrical signals in the . These signals travel through the auditory nerve to the brain, where they're processed to create our of sound. Both systems work together to help us navigate the world.
Visual System
Photoreceptors and Retina
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are specialized cells in the retina that detect light and convert it into electrical signals
Rods are responsible for low-light and peripheral vision, enabling us to see in dim conditions and detect motion
Cones are responsible for and high-acuity central vision, allowing us to distinguish different hues and see fine details
The retina is a light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptors and other neural cells
Photoreceptors synapse with bipolar cells, which then synapse with to transmit visual information to the brain
The is a small region in the center of the retina with a high density of cones, providing the sharpest vision (macula)
Optic Nerve and Visual Cortex
The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the retina to the brain
Ganglion cell axons converge at the optic disc to form the optic nerve
The is where the optic nerves from both eyes partially cross, allowing for binocular vision and depth perception
The is the primary area of the brain responsible for processing visual information
Located in the occipital lobe, it receives input from the of the thalamus
Different regions of the visual cortex are specialized for processing specific aspects of visual information (color, motion, form)
Higher-order visual areas integrate information to create a coherent visual perception (ventral and dorsal streams)
Auditory System
Cochlea and Hair Cells
The cochlea is a spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that converts sound waves into electrical signals
Sound waves cause vibrations in the fluid-filled cochlea, which stimulate along the
Hair cells are specialized sensory cells with stereocilia that bend in response to fluid movement, opening ion channels and generating electrical signals
The basilar membrane is a flexible structure in the cochlea that vibrates at different frequencies along its length
High-frequency sounds cause vibrations at the base of the cochlea, while low-frequency sounds cause vibrations at the apex (tonotopic organization)
Auditory Ossicles and Cortex
The are three small bones in the middle ear (, , and ) that transmit sound vibrations from the eardrum to the cochlea
The ossicles act as a mechanical amplifier, increasing the efficiency of sound transmission and protecting the inner ear from loud sounds
The is the primary area of the brain responsible for processing auditory information
Located in the temporal lobe, it receives input from the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus
Different regions of the auditory cortex are specialized for processing specific aspects of sound (, , location)
is the ability to determine the direction and distance of a sound source
The brain uses differences in the timing and intensity of sounds reaching each ear to calculate the location of the source ()
The shape of the outer ear () also helps to filter sounds and provide additional localization cues (monaural cues)
Balance and Orientation
Vestibular System
The is responsible for maintaining balance, spatial orientation, and coordinating eye movements
Located in the inner ear, it consists of the and ( and )
The semicircular canals detect rotational movements of the head
Three fluid-filled canals arranged at right angles to each other sense rotation in different planes
Hair cells in the ampullae of the canals bend in response to fluid movement, generating electrical signals
The otolith organs detect linear accelerations and head tilt
The utricle senses horizontal movements, while the saccule senses vertical movements
Hair cells embedded in a gelatinous matrix with calcium carbonate crystals (otoconia) bend in response to gravity and linear acceleration
Vestibular information is integrated with visual and proprioceptive inputs in the brain to maintain balance and coordinate movements
The in the brainstem process vestibular signals and project to the cerebellum, spinal cord, and cortex
The (VOR) stabilizes gaze during head movements by generating compensatory eye movements in the opposite direction