🖼AP Art History Unit 9 – The Pacific, 700–1980 ce

Key Cultures and Civilizations

• Polynesian cultures inhabited islands across the central and southern Pacific Ocean, including Hawaii, Samoa, Tonga, and New Zealand (Aotearoa)
• Melanesian cultures thrived in the western Pacific, encompassing Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji
  • Melanesian societies often organized around small-scale, village-based communities
• Micronesian cultures populated the northern Pacific, including the Marshall Islands, Caroline Islands, and Mariana Islands
• Aboriginal Australians, the indigenous peoples of Australia, maintained distinct cultural traditions for over 60,000 years before European colonization
  • Aboriginal Australians developed complex systems of kinship, spirituality, and connection to the land
• Torres Strait Islanders, indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands between Australia and New Guinea, developed unique cultural practices and artistic traditions
• Maori, the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand (Aotearoa), established a rich cultural heritage and artistic legacy
  • Maori society organized around iwi (tribes) and hapu (subtribes), each with their own unique traditions and histories

Geographic and Environmental Context

• The Pacific region encompasses a vast expanse of ocean dotted with islands of varying sizes and geological origins
• Many Pacific islands are volcanic in origin, formed by hotspots or subduction zones along the Pacific Ring of Fire
  • Volcanic islands often feature rugged, mountainous landscapes and fertile soils
• Coral atolls, formed by the growth of coral reefs around subsiding volcanic islands, are common in the Pacific
  • Atolls typically have limited land area and resources, requiring careful management by indigenous communities
• The Pacific Ocean itself played a crucial role in shaping the cultures and histories of Pacific peoples
  • The ocean served as a highway for migration, trade, and cultural exchange between islands and archipelagos
• The unique ecosystems of Pacific islands, including diverse flora and fauna, influenced the development of local cultures and artistic traditions
  • Many Pacific cultures developed close relationships with the natural world, reflected in their art, mythology, and spiritual beliefs
• The isolation of many Pacific islands contributed to the development of distinct cultural traditions and languages
  • However, the ocean also facilitated long-distance voyaging and cultural exchange between island groups

Artistic Traditions and Styles

• Pacific art encompasses a wide range of media, including sculpture, painting, textiles, and body adornment
• Woodcarving is a prominent artistic tradition across the Pacific, with each culture developing unique styles and motifs
  • Maori whakairo (woodcarving) features intricate spirals, curvilinear designs, and stylized representations of ancestors and deities
  • Melanesian woodcarving often incorporates powerful, stylized human figures and masks used in ritual contexts
• Tapa cloth, made from the inner bark of the paper mulberry tree, is a significant artistic medium in Polynesia
  • Tapa cloths feature geometric patterns, stylized natural motifs, and symbolic designs specific to each island group
• Tattoo art is highly developed in many Pacific cultures, serving as a marker of identity, status, and spiritual significance
  • Samoan tatau, featuring intricate geometric patterns, is a prime example of the sophistication of Pacific tattoo traditions
• Sculpture in stone, shell, and other materials is prevalent across the Pacific, often representing ancestors, deities, and spiritual beings
  • Easter Island (Rapa Nui) moai, monumental stone figures, are among the most iconic examples of Pacific sculpture
• Performative arts, including dance, music, and storytelling, are integral to Pacific artistic traditions
  • Haka, a Maori ceremonial dance, combines powerful physical movements with chanted poetry to convey cultural narratives and emotions

Religious and Spiritual Influences

• Animistic beliefs, which attribute spiritual essence to natural phenomena and objects, are common across Pacific cultures
  • In many Pacific worldviews, the landscape itself is imbued with spiritual significance and ancestral presence
• Ancestor veneration is a central aspect of many Pacific religious traditions
  • Ancestors are often represented in art, such as carved figures, and are believed to influence the lives of their descendants
• Polytheistic belief systems, featuring multiple deities associated with natural forces and human activities, are prevalent in the Pacific
  • Hawaiian religion, for example, includes deities such as Ku (god of war), Lono (god of fertility), and Pele (goddess of volcanoes)
• Shamanism and spirit mediumship are practiced in some Pacific cultures, particularly in Melanesia
  • Shamans and spirit mediums serve as intermediaries between the human and spiritual worlds, often using art objects in their practices
• Christianity, introduced by European missionaries in the 18th and 19th centuries, has had a significant impact on Pacific spiritual landscapes
  • Many Pacific peoples have incorporated Christian beliefs and practices into their traditional spiritual frameworks, creating syncretic religious traditions
• Art objects, such as sculptures, masks, and ceremonial textiles, often serve as conduits for spiritual power and communication with the divine
  • The creation and use of art objects in religious contexts is governed by complex protocols and cultural norms

Materials and Techniques

• Pacific artists utilize a diverse array of locally available materials in their creative practices
• Wood is a primary medium for sculpture, carving, and architectural elements
  • Different species of wood, such as totara (New Zealand), kauri (New Zealand), and ironwood (Melanesia), are prized for their durability and aesthetic qualities
• Stone, including basalt, limestone, and volcanic tuff, is used for monumental sculpture and sacred objects
  • Easter Island (Rapa Nui) moai are carved from volcanic tuff using stone tools and abrasives
• Shell, particularly mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell, is used for inlay, jewelry, and ceremonial objects
  • Solomon Islands shell-inlaid war clubs and fishing hooks showcase the intricate work of Melanesian shell artists
• Fiber arts, including weaving, plaiting, and tapa cloth production, are highly developed in the Pacific
  • Samoan fine mats, woven from pandanus leaves, are treasured cultural objects that mark important social occasions and relationships
• Pigments, derived from natural sources such as clay, charcoal, and plant materials, are used for painting, tattooing, and dyeing
  • Ochre, a natural pigment ranging from yellow to red, is widely used in Aboriginal Australian art for painting on bodies, bark, and rock surfaces
• Metalworking, introduced by Europeans, has been adopted and adapted by some Pacific cultures
  • Maori artists, for example, have incorporated silver and other metals into their carving and jewelry-making practices

Cultural Exchange and Trade

• The Pacific Ocean facilitated extensive networks of cultural exchange and trade between island groups
• Long-distance voyaging, using sophisticated navigation techniques and double-hulled canoes, enabled the spread of people, ideas, and material culture across the Pacific
  • The Lapita cultural complex, associated with the ancestors of Polynesians, spread across the western Pacific through maritime migration and exchange
• Trade in valuable commodities, such as obsidian, shell valuables, and feathers, linked distant island communities
  • The kula ring, a ceremonial exchange system in the Massim region of Papua New Guinea, involves the circulation of shell necklaces and armbands between island communities
• Cultural exchange also occurred through intermarriage, adoption, and the movement of skilled artisans between islands
  • The spread of the Samoan 'ava ceremony, a ritual involving the consumption of a ceremonial drink, illustrates the diffusion of cultural practices across Polynesia
• European contact, beginning in the 16th century, introduced new materials, technologies, and cultural influences to the Pacific
  • The adoption of metal tools, such as iron axes and chisels, transformed Pacific art production and carving traditions
• Missionary activity, particularly in the 19th century, led to the suppression of some traditional cultural practices and the introduction of new art forms
  • The Hawaiian quilt, featuring appliquéd designs inspired by kapa cloth motifs, emerged as a new art form in the context of missionary influence

Colonization and Its Impact

• European colonization, beginning in the late 18th century, had profound and often devastating impacts on Pacific cultures and artistic traditions
• Colonial powers, including Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States, annexed and administered Pacific islands as colonies or territories
  • The partitioning of the Pacific among colonial powers disrupted traditional political structures and cultural practices
• Introduced diseases, such as smallpox and measles, decimated Pacific populations, leading to the loss of cultural knowledge and artistic traditions
  • The depopulation of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in the 19th century, due in part to disease and slave raiding, led to the decline of monumental sculpture production
• Colonial policies of cultural assimilation, including the suppression of indigenous languages and practices, undermined the transmission of artistic knowledge
  • Australian Aboriginal children were forcibly removed from their families and placed in missionary or government-run schools, where they were prohibited from speaking their languages or practicing their cultures
• The appropriation and commodification of Pacific art by Western collectors and museums removed objects from their cultural contexts
  • The sale and display of Pacific art objects in Western museums, often without proper attribution or cultural sensitivity, has been a point of contention and activism for Pacific communities
• Despite these challenges, Pacific peoples have demonstrated resilience and adaptability in maintaining and revitalizing their artistic traditions
  • The contemporary Pacific art movement, which emerged in the late 20th century, has been a powerful force for cultural reclamation and self-determination

Modern and Contemporary Pacific Art

• Modern and contemporary Pacific art reflects the ongoing negotiation of cultural identities and artistic expressions in the context of globalization and postcolonial realities
• Pacific artists have engaged with a range of contemporary media, including painting, sculpture, installation, performance, and digital art
  • Maori artist Lisa Reihana's multimedia installation "in Pursuit of Venus [infected]" (2015-2017) reimagines early European encounters with Pacific peoples through a critical, indigenous lens
• Many contemporary Pacific artists draw on traditional cultural motifs, materials, and techniques while also innovating and experimenting with new forms
  • Samoan-Japanese artist Shigeyuki Kihara's "Fa'a fafine: In a Manner of a Woman" series (2005) features photographs of the artist performing traditional Samoan dance in Victorian mourning dress, challenging binary notions of gender and cultural identity
• Pacific artists have used their work to address pressing social, political, and environmental issues facing their communities
  • Tongan artist Sopolemalama Filipe Tohi's sculptural installations, such as "Haukulasi" (2016), explore the impact of climate change on Pacific island environments and cultures
• The contemporary Pacific art scene is characterized by a vibrant network of artists, galleries, museums, and festivals across the region and globally
  • The Honolulu Biennial, established in 2017, is a major platform for showcasing contemporary art from Hawaii and the wider Pacific
• Pacific artists and scholars have been at the forefront of efforts to decolonize art history and museum practices
  • Māori artist and curator Megan Tamati-Quennell has advocated for the repatriation of Māori ancestral remains and cultural objects from museums worldwide
• The global diaspora of Pacific peoples has led to the emergence of transnational Pacific art communities and expressions
  • Pacific Islander artists living in New Zealand, Australia, and the United States have created works that navigate the complexities of diasporic identities and connections to ancestral homelands