🗳️AP Comparative Government Unit 1 – Political Systems and Government Types

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Political system encompasses the institutions, processes, and actors involved in making and implementing collective decisions for a society
• Government refers to the specific group of people and institutions that hold and exercise political power within a political system
• Sovereignty is the supreme authority within a territory, often linked to the state's ability to govern itself without external interference
• Legitimacy is the belief that a government has the right to rule and that citizens have an obligation to obey its laws and decisions
  • Sources of legitimacy can include tradition, charisma, legality, and effectiveness in meeting citizens' needs
• Authority is the recognized right of a government to exercise power and make decisions that are binding on citizens
• Power refers to the ability to influence others' behavior and achieve desired outcomes, even in the face of resistance
  • Types of power include coercive (force), economic (wealth), and ideological (ideas and beliefs)
• Constitutions are fundamental laws that define the powers, structures, and limits of government institutions

Types of Political Systems

• Democracy is a system in which citizens have the power to choose their leaders and influence policy through free and fair elections (United States, India)
  • Direct democracy involves citizens participating directly in decision-making through referendums and initiatives (Switzerland)
  • Representative democracy entails citizens electing representatives to make decisions on their behalf (United Kingdom)
• Authoritarianism concentrates power in the hands of a single leader or small group, with limited political freedoms and opposition (China, Russia)
  • Totalitarianism is an extreme form of authoritarianism that seeks to control all aspects of citizens' lives and eliminates dissent (North Korea)
• Monarchy is a system in which a single individual holds power, often through hereditary succession (Saudi Arabia, Brunei)
  • Absolute monarchies grant the monarch unchecked power, while constitutional monarchies limit the monarch's role (United Kingdom, Japan)
• Theocracy is a system in which religious authorities hold political power and govern according to religious law (Iran, Vatican City)
• Communism is a system based on collective ownership of the means of production and the goal of creating a classless society (Cuba, Vietnam)

Forms of Government

• Presidential systems feature a directly elected head of state who serves as both the chief executive and head of government (United States, Brazil)
  • Separation of powers between executive, legislative, and judicial branches is a key characteristic
• Parliamentary systems have a head of government (prime minister) who is typically chosen by the legislature and is accountable to it (United Kingdom, Canada)
  • Fusion of powers between executive and legislative branches, with the executive drawn from the legislature
• Semi-presidential systems combine elements of both presidential and parliamentary systems, with a directly elected president and a prime minister accountable to the legislature (France, Russia)
• Federal systems divide power between a central government and regional governments, each with its own responsibilities and authority (United States, Germany)
  • Unitary systems concentrate power in the central government, with regional governments subordinate to it (France, Japan)
• Confederal systems are loose associations of independent states that delegate limited powers to a central authority (European Union, African Union)

Power Distribution and Structures

• Separation of powers divides government authority among distinct branches (executive, legislative, judicial) to prevent concentration of power
  • Checks and balances enable each branch to limit the powers of the others and prevent overreach (presidential veto, judicial review)
• Centralization concentrates power in the national government, with limited autonomy for regional and local authorities (unitary systems)
• Decentralization disperses power to regional and local governments, allowing for greater autonomy and responsiveness to local needs (federal systems)
  • Devolution is the transfer of powers from the central government to regional or local authorities (United Kingdom, Spain)
• Bicameral legislatures have two chambers (upper and lower houses), often with different powers and methods of selection (United States Congress)
  • Unicameral legislatures consist of a single chamber, typically with all members elected directly by citizens (New Zealand, Sweden)
• Judiciaries interpret and apply the law, with varying degrees of independence from other branches (United States Supreme Court, International Criminal Court)

Ideologies and Political Philosophies

• Liberalism emphasizes individual rights, limited government, free markets, and equality before the law (John Locke, Adam Smith)
  • Classical liberalism stresses minimal government intervention in the economy and society (Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman)
  • Social liberalism advocates a more active role for government in promoting social welfare and reducing inequality (John Rawls)
• Conservatism values tradition, stability, hierarchy, and skepticism of rapid change (Edmund Burke, Russell Kirk)
  • Social conservatism emphasizes traditional moral and cultural values, often rooted in religion (Christian right, Islamist parties)
  • Economic conservatism prioritizes free markets, limited government regulation, and low taxes (Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher)
• Socialism calls for collective ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods based on need (Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels)
  • Democratic socialism seeks to achieve socialist goals through democratic processes and institutions (Bernie Sanders, Nordic model)
• Nationalism emphasizes loyalty and devotion to one's nation, often prioritizing national interests over individual or global concerns (Mahatma Gandhi, Charles de Gaulle)
• Populism appeals to "the people" against "the elite," often employing a charismatic leader and a focus on popular grievances (Huey Long, Hugo Chávez)

Comparative Analysis of Systems

• Institutional design compares the formal structures and rules of political systems, such as constitutions, electoral systems, and branches of government
  • Electoral systems shape how votes are translated into seats, influencing party systems and representation (first-past-the-post, proportional representation)
• Policy outcomes examine the effectiveness of different systems in addressing societal challenges and delivering public goods (healthcare, education, infrastructure)
• Political culture considers the values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape political behavior and expectations in different societies (civic engagement, trust in government)
• Economic development and modernization theory posit that economic growth and industrialization lead to political liberalization and democratization (South Korea, Taiwan)
  • Resource curse suggests that abundant natural resources can hinder democratic development by enabling authoritarianism and corruption (Nigeria, Venezuela)
• Regime transitions analyze the processes and factors that contribute to changes in political systems, such as democratization or authoritarian backsliding (Eastern Europe post-1989, Arab Spring)

Historical Context and Evolution

• Ancient Greek city-states developed early forms of democracy, with citizens participating directly in decision-making (Athens)
• The Magna Carta (1215) in England established the principle of limited government and the rule of law, constraining the power of the monarch
• The Enlightenment (18th century) promoted ideas of individual rights, reason, and social contract theory, influencing modern liberal democracy (John Locke, Montesquieu)
• The American Revolution (1765-1783) and French Revolution (1789-1799) put Enlightenment ideas into practice, establishing republics and challenging monarchical authority
• The Industrial Revolution (late 18th to 19th century) led to the rise of capitalism, urbanization, and new social classes, shaping political ideologies and movements (socialism, labor unions)
• Decolonization (mid-20th century) saw the emergence of newly independent states in Africa and Asia, grappling with nation-building and political development (India, Nigeria)
• The Cold War (1947-1991) divided the world into capitalist and communist blocs, with proxy wars and ideological competition shaping global politics (United States, Soviet Union)

Contemporary Challenges and Debates

• Globalization has increased economic interdependence and cultural exchange, challenging traditional notions of state sovereignty and national identity
  • Supranational organizations (European Union, United Nations) and international law have gained prominence, influencing domestic politics
• The rise of populist and nationalist movements has challenged liberal democratic norms and institutions, often fueled by economic grievances and cultural anxieties (Brexit, Donald Trump)
• Climate change poses existential threats to human societies, requiring collective action and political will to mitigate its effects and adapt to a changing environment
  • Green parties and environmental movements have gained traction, advocating for sustainable policies and practices (Green New Deal, Paris Agreement)
• Advancements in technology, such as artificial intelligence and automation, raise questions about the future of work, inequality, and the role of government in managing these changes
• Identity politics has become more salient, with marginalized groups (racial, ethnic, sexual minorities) demanding recognition, representation, and rights
  • Intersectionality examines how multiple identities (race, gender, class) interact to shape individuals' experiences and opportunities
• The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the strengths and weaknesses of different political systems in responding to a global crisis, with implications for public health, civil liberties, and economic recovery