🗳️AP Comparative Government Unit 4 – Party Systems & Electoral Participation

Key Concepts & Definitions

• Party system refers to the number, size, and ideological positions of political parties in a country
• Electoral system is the set of rules and procedures used to translate votes into seats in a legislature or other elected body
• Single-member district (SMD) systems elect one representative per district, often using plurality or majority rule (United States, United Kingdom)
  • Plurality rule awards the seat to the candidate with the most votes, even if they do not have a majority
  • Majority rule requires a candidate to win more than 50% of the vote, sometimes necessitating runoff elections
• Proportional representation (PR) systems allocate seats based on the percentage of votes received by each party (Israel, Netherlands)
  • Can use party lists, where voters choose a party rather than individual candidates
  • Mixed-member proportional (MMP) systems combine SMD and PR (Germany, New Zealand)
• Voter turnout measures the percentage of eligible voters who cast ballots in an election
• Party organization includes the formal structure, leadership, and internal decision-making processes of political parties
• Party functions encompass the various roles parties play in the political system, such as candidate recruitment, policy development, and mobilizing voters

Types of Party Systems

• Two-party systems have two dominant parties that regularly alternate in power (United States, Jamaica)
  • Duverger's Law suggests that SMD plurality systems tend to favor two-party competition
  • Third parties may exist but rarely win significant representation or form governments
• Multi-party systems feature three or more parties that compete for power and form coalitions to govern (India, Brazil)
  • Often associated with PR electoral systems, which lower barriers to entry for smaller parties
  • Can lead to fragmented legislatures and complex coalition negotiations
• Dominant-party systems have one party that consistently wins elections and governs, with limited opposition (South Africa, Singapore)
  • May result from historical factors, party-state fusion, or electoral dominance
• One-party systems have a single legal party that monopolizes power and prohibits opposition (China, Cuba)
  • Often associated with communist or authoritarian regimes
  • Party and state institutions are closely intertwined
• Hegemonic party systems allow multiple parties to compete, but one party dominates and rarely loses power (Russia, Mexico under PRI rule)
  • Opposition parties may face legal restrictions, resource disparities, or uneven playing fields

Electoral Systems Overview

• Electoral systems shape the incentives and strategies of parties and candidates
• Majoritarian systems, such as SMD plurality or majority, tend to favor larger parties and produce more disproportional outcomes
  • Can lead to "wasted votes" for losing candidates and discourage smaller parties
  • May provide clearer accountability and more stable governments
• PR systems allocate seats based on vote share, promoting greater diversity of representation
  • Lower thresholds for winning seats encourage more parties to compete
  • Can fragment the party system and complicate coalition formation
• Mixed systems combine elements of majoritarian and PR, such as parallel voting or MMP
  • Aim to balance local representation with proportionality
  • Examples include Germany, Japan, and Mexico
• Electoral rules also encompass district magnitude (number of seats per district), ballot structure (candidate vs. party-centered), and electoral thresholds (minimum vote share required to win seats)
• Electoral system choice can reflect historical legacies, political bargains, or efforts at engineering specific outcomes

Factors Influencing Voter Turnout

• Institutional factors, such as compulsory voting laws and registration requirements, can affect turnout
  • Australia and Belgium have compulsory voting and consistently high turnout
  • Automatic voter registration can boost participation compared to opt-in systems
• Electoral competitiveness and perceived stakes of the election can mobilize voters
  • Close races and pivotal elections tend to generate higher turnout
  • Salient issues and polarized campaigns can also drive participation
• Socioeconomic factors, such as education and income levels, are positively correlated with turnout
  • Higher socioeconomic status is associated with greater political engagement and resources
  • Disparities in turnout can exacerbate political inequalities
• Demographic characteristics, such as age and ethnicity, can shape propensity to vote
  • Older citizens tend to vote at higher rates than younger cohorts
  • Minority groups may face barriers or disengagement that depress turnout
• Party mobilization efforts, through canvassing, advertising, and get-out-the-vote drives, can boost turnout
  • Parties have incentives to target and mobilize their supporters
  • Resource-intensive mobilization may focus on competitive districts or reliable voters
• Electoral integrity and trust in the process can influence citizens' willingness to participate
  • Perceptions of fraud, manipulation, or unfairness can depress turnout
  • Confidence in elections and democratic institutions can encourage engagement

Party Organization & Functions

• Party organization encompasses the formal structures, rules, and leadership of political parties
  • Centralized parties concentrate power in national leadership and have hierarchical decision-making
  • Decentralized parties give more autonomy to local branches and have bottom-up processes
• Candidate selection methods shape who can run for office under the party label
  • Exclusive methods, such as leadership appointment, limit participation
  • Inclusive methods, such as primaries or member votes, broaden candidate choice
• Policy development involves crafting party platforms and campaign promises
  • Can involve input from members, activists, and interest groups
  • May require balancing competing factions and ideological positions
• Campaign finance and resource allocation reflect party priorities and strategies
  • Parties raise and distribute funds to candidates and target key races
  • Uneven resource distribution can advantage some candidates over others
• Linkage function connects parties to voters and civil society
  • Parties aggregate and articulate social interests and grievances
  • Act as intermediaries between citizens and the state
• Governing function involves organizing and leading the government
  • Parliamentary systems require parties to form majorities and choose prime ministers
  • Presidential systems may have divided government between parties
• Opposition function entails critiquing and checking the ruling party
  • Hold government accountable and offer policy alternatives
  • Prepare for future elections as "government in waiting"

Case Studies: Party Systems in Different Countries

• United States has a two-party system dominated by Democrats and Republicans
  • SMD plurality elections and presidential system reinforce duopoly
  • Parties are decentralized and candidate-centered, with weak party discipline
• United Kingdom has a Westminster parliamentary system with a traditionally two-party format
  • Conservative and Labour parties alternate in power, with Liberal Democrats as third party
  • SMD plurality elections and centralized parties, but growing fragmentation and regionalism
• Germany has a multi-party system with MMP electoral rules
  • Christian Democrats (CDU/CSU) and Social Democrats (SPD) are largest parties
  • Coalitions are the norm, with smaller parties (Greens, FDP, Left) playing pivotal roles
• Israel has a highly fragmented multi-party system based on pure PR
  • Low electoral threshold (3.25%) allows many small parties to win seats
  • Coalition formation is complex and often unstable, with religious and ethnic parties holding leverage
• South Africa has a dominant-party system led by the African National Congress (ANC)
  • ANC has won every election since the end of apartheid in 1994
  • Opposition parties, such as Democratic Alliance and Economic Freedom Fighters, have gained ground but not threatened ANC dominance
• China has a one-party system controlled by the Communist Party of China (CPC)
  • CPC holds a monopoly on political power and restricts opposition
  • Party and state institutions are fused, with party committees and congresses setting policy

Impact on Governance & Policy

• Party systems shape the composition and stability of governments
  • Two-party systems tend to produce single-party majorities and alternation of power
  • Multi-party systems often require coalition formation and power-sharing arrangements
• Electoral systems influence the representation of different groups and interests
  • SMD systems can lead to disproportional outcomes and underrepresentation of minorities
  • PR systems promote greater diversity and inclusion of smaller parties
• Party discipline and cohesion affect the ability to pass legislation and implement policies
  • Centralized parties can enforce voting unity and push through their agenda
  • Decentralized parties may face internal divisions and require compromise
• Coalition dynamics can constrain policy choices and lead to bargaining and logrolling
  • Partners may have divergent priorities and veto power over decisions
  • Coalitions may be unstable and subject to collapse or realignment
• Opposition parties can check government power and shape policy through criticism and alternatives
  • Effective opposition can hold ruling parties accountable and influence public opinion
  • Weak or fragmented opposition may limit the ability to challenge government actions
• Policy outcomes reflect the ideological positions and constituencies of governing parties
  • Left-wing parties tend to prioritize social welfare and redistribution
  • Right-wing parties tend to favor free markets and limited government intervention
  • Center parties may balance competing demands and pursue incremental reforms

Current Trends & Challenges

• Declining party identification and loyalty among voters in many countries
  • Rise of independent voters and erosion of traditional party bases
  • Increasing volatility and unpredictability in elections
• Fragmentation and polarization of party systems, especially in PR countries
  • Emergence of new parties on the left and right, often with populist or anti-establishment appeals
  • Hollowing out of the center and decline of catch-all parties
• Personalization of politics and focus on individual leaders over parties
  • Media attention and campaign strategies emphasize candidates' personalities and charisma
  • Parties may become vehicles for individual ambitions rather than collective goals
• Challenges of representation and inclusion, particularly for marginalized groups
  • Underrepresentation of women, minorities, and youth in political parties and elected office
  • Need for parties to diversify and address the concerns of changing electorates
• Impact of technology and social media on party competition and voter engagement
  • Digital tools can facilitate mobilization and grassroots participation
  • But also raise concerns about misinformation, echo chambers, and foreign interference
• Questions of party finance and campaign regulation in the face of rising costs and new funding sources
  • Balancing free speech and association with concerns about undue influence and corruption
  • Adapting regulations to address online advertising, dark money, and foreign donations
• Globalization and supranational governance challenge traditional party politics
  • Rise of transnational issues and institutions, such as the European Union
  • Parties must navigate competing pressures of international cooperation and domestic responsiveness