🇪🇺AP European History Unit 2 – Reformation

Key Figures and Their Contributions

• Martin Luther challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and sparked the Protestant Reformation with his 95 Theses (1517)
• John Calvin developed the doctrine of predestination and established a theocratic government in Geneva, Switzerland
  • His ideas spread throughout Europe, particularly influencing the Reformed tradition
• Huldrych Zwingli led the Swiss Reformation, advocating for the removal of religious images and the simplification of the liturgy
• Henry VIII broke away from the Catholic Church and established the Church of England, largely due to his desire to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon
• Ignatius of Loyola founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), which played a significant role in the Counter-Reformation and missionary work
• Pope Paul III convened the Council of Trent (1545-1563), which addressed the challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation and initiated reforms within the Catholic Church

Causes and Context of the Reformation

• The Renaissance and humanism emphasized individual spirituality and questioned the authority of the Catholic Church
• The printing press enabled the rapid spread of ideas and increased literacy rates, making religious texts more accessible to the masses
• Corruption within the Catholic Church, such as the sale of indulgences and the practice of simony (buying and selling of church offices), led to widespread discontent
• The rise of nation-states and the decline of papal authority created a political climate conducive to religious change
• Economic factors, such as the growth of cities and the rise of the middle class, contributed to the desire for religious reform
• The Great Schism (1378-1417) and the Avignon Papacy (1309-1377) weakened the authority and prestige of the papacy

Martin Luther and the 95 Theses

• Luther, a German monk and theologian, posted his 95 Theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517
  • The theses criticized the sale of indulgences and questioned the authority of the pope
• Luther's ideas centered on the concept of sola fide (justification by faith alone), sola scriptura (scripture alone as the source of religious authority), and the priesthood of all believers
• The 95 Theses spread rapidly throughout Europe, thanks to the printing press, and sparked widespread debate and controversy
• Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1521 and declared an outlaw by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms
• Despite facing opposition, Luther continued to develop his theology and translated the Bible into German, making it accessible to the common people

Spread of Protestant Ideas

• The printing press played a crucial role in disseminating Protestant ideas, as pamphlets and treatises could be mass-produced and distributed widely
• The translation of the Bible into vernacular languages, such as German and English, allowed more people to read and interpret scripture for themselves
• The appeal of Protestant ideas, such as the emphasis on individual faith and the rejection of clerical authority, attracted many followers
• Political factors, such as the support of German princes and the English monarchy, contributed to the spread of Protestantism
• The Protestant Reformation spread beyond Germany, influencing religious movements in Switzerland, France, England, and Scandinavia
  • Calvinism, in particular, gained a strong following in Switzerland, France, and the Netherlands

Catholic Counter-Reformation

• The Council of Trent (1545-1563) addressed the challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation and initiated reforms within the Catholic Church
  • The council reaffirmed Catholic doctrine, clarified the role of scripture and tradition, and addressed clerical abuses
• The Society of Jesus (Jesuits), founded by Ignatius of Loyola, played a significant role in the Counter-Reformation through education, missionary work, and support for the papacy
• The Roman Inquisition was established to combat heresy and enforce religious orthodoxy
• Catholic rulers, such as Philip II of Spain and the Habsburg emperors, supported the Counter-Reformation and worked to suppress Protestantism in their territories
• The Counter-Reformation also saw a revival of Catholic spirituality, art, and architecture, exemplified by the Baroque style

Social and Political Impacts

• The Protestant Reformation challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire, leading to a fragmentation of religious and political power in Europe
• The rise of Protestantism led to the formation of new religious and political alliances, such as the Schmalkaldic League in Germany
• The Reformation contributed to the growth of nationalism, as rulers and subjects increasingly identified with their respective religious denominations
• The concept of cuius regio, eius religio (whose realm, their religion) emerged, allowing rulers to determine the religion of their territories
• The Reformation had a significant impact on education, as Protestant reformers emphasized literacy and the establishment of schools to promote their religious ideas
• The role of women in society was affected, with some Protestant denominations, such as Quakerism, promoting greater gender equality

Religious Wars and Conflicts

• The spread of Protestantism and the Catholic Counter-Reformation led to numerous religious wars and conflicts throughout Europe
• The German Peasants' War (1524-1525) was a series of revolts by peasants and urban workers, partly inspired by Luther's ideas, which were brutally suppressed by the nobility
• The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) were a series of civil wars between Catholics and Huguenots (French Calvinists) that devastated France
  • The conflict ended with the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted limited religious toleration to the Huguenots
• The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) began as a conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire but escalated into a broader European war involving political and dynastic rivalries
  • The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which recognized the sovereignty of individual states and the principle of religious toleration

Long-Term Effects on European Society

• The Protestant Reformation led to a lasting division in Western Christianity, with the emergence of numerous Protestant denominations alongside the Catholic Church
• The Reformation contributed to the development of modern concepts of religious freedom, individual rights, and the separation of church and state
• The emphasis on literacy and vernacular translations of the Bible promoted the growth of education and the spread of knowledge
• The Reformation had a significant impact on European culture, influencing art, music, and literature
  • Protestant artists and writers often focused on religious themes and the importance of individual faith
• The economic impact of the Reformation was mixed, with some regions benefiting from the growth of trade and industry, while others experienced economic disruption and social unrest
• The Reformation laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment and the development of modern democratic ideals by challenging traditional sources of authority and promoting individual reason and conscience