🇪🇺AP European History Unit 5 – Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century

Key Events and Timeline

• 1789: The French Revolution begins with the Storming of the Bastille on July 14th, marking a pivotal moment in European history
• 1791: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is adopted by the French National Constituent Assembly, establishing the principles of individual rights and equality before the law
• 1792: The First French Republic is established following the abolition of the monarchy and the execution of King Louis XVI
• 1793-1794: The Reign of Terror, a period of violence and mass executions, takes place under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins
• 1795: The Directory is established as a new government in France, replacing the National Convention
• 1799: Napoleon Bonaparte stages a coup d'état, overthrowing the Directory and establishing the French Consulate
  • This event marks the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of the Napoleonic era

Major Conflicts and Crises

• The French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) were a series of conflicts between France and various European powers, sparked by the French Revolution and the spread of revolutionary ideas
  • These wars included the War of the First Coalition (1792-1797) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802)
• The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) were a series of conflicts between France, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, and various European powers
  • Major battles include the Battle of Austerlitz (1805), the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), and the Battle of Waterloo (1815)
• The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) was a successful slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, leading to the establishment of the independent nation of Haiti
• The Irish Rebellion of 1798 was an uprising against British rule in Ireland, inspired by the French Revolution and the ideals of republicanism
• The Quasi-War (1798-1800) was an undeclared naval war between the United States and France, arising from disputes over trade and the XYZ Affair

Political Ideologies and Movements

• Liberalism emerged as a political ideology emphasizing individual rights, limited government, and free markets
  • Key thinkers include John Locke, Montesquieu, and Adam Smith
• Republicanism advocated for a system of government in which power is held by elected representatives, rather than a monarch
  • The French Revolution and the creation of the First French Republic exemplified this ideology
• Nationalism developed as a belief in the shared identity and common interests of a nation, often leading to demands for self-determination and independence
  • The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars contributed to the growth of nationalist sentiment in Europe
• Conservatism emerged as a reaction to the French Revolution, emphasizing tradition, stability, and the preservation of existing social and political institutions
  • Edmund Burke's "Reflections on the Revolution in France" (1790) was a key text in the development of conservative thought
• The Enlightenment, a philosophical movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and progress, had a significant impact on political thought in the late 18th century
  • Enlightenment thinkers, such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, challenged traditional authority and advocated for social and political reforms

Social and Economic Changes

• The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the late 18th century, led to significant changes in manufacturing, transportation, and labor
  • Innovations such as the steam engine, cotton gin, and factory system transformed production and commerce
• Urbanization accelerated as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of employment in the growing industrial sector
  • This shift led to the growth of urban poverty, poor living conditions, and new social classes (working class and middle class)
• The Atlantic slave trade, which had been a significant economic force since the 16th century, faced increasing opposition and calls for abolition
  • Denmark became the first European country to ban the slave trade in 1792, followed by Britain in 1807
• The French Revolution led to the abolition of feudalism and the old regime's social hierarchy, promoting the idea of equality before the law
  • The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) established the concept of equal rights for all citizens
• Economic policies, such as mercantilism and free trade, were debated and implemented by various European powers
  • Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations" (1776) advocated for free market principles and criticized mercantilist policies

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

• Neoclassicism, an artistic and architectural style inspired by classical antiquity, gained popularity in the late 18th century
  • Examples include the Panthéon in Paris and the works of Jacques-Louis David
• Romanticism emerged as a cultural movement that emphasized emotion, individualism, and the beauty of nature
  • Poets such as William Wordsworth and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe exemplified this movement
• The Enlightenment continued to shape intellectual discourse, with philosophers and writers advocating for reason, tolerance, and progress
  • Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781) and "What is Enlightenment?" (1784) were influential works of this period
• The concept of human rights gained traction, with documents such as the United States Declaration of Independence (1776) and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) articulating these ideas
• Education and literacy rates increased, particularly among the middle and upper classes, leading to a more informed and engaged public
  • The Encyclopédie, edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert, aimed to collect and disseminate knowledge to a wide audience

Key Figures and Their Impacts

• Maximilien Robespierre, a prominent figure in the French Revolution, led the Jacobins and played a central role in the Reign of Terror
  • His radical policies and authoritarian rule ultimately led to his downfall and execution in 1794
• Napoleon Bonaparte, a French military leader and eventual Emperor of France, rose to power in the aftermath of the French Revolution
  • His military campaigns and political reforms had a lasting impact on Europe
• King Louis XVI of France, whose reign coincided with the French Revolution, was executed in 1793 after being found guilty of treason
  • His death marked a significant moment in the Revolution and the end of the French monarchy
• Marie Antoinette, Queen of France and wife of Louis XVI, became a symbol of the excesses and decadence of the French monarchy
  • She was also executed during the French Revolution in 1793
• Toussaint Louverture, a leader of the Haitian Revolution, played a crucial role in the fight for Haitian independence from France
  • His military and political leadership helped establish Haiti as the first independent black republic in 1804

International Relations and Diplomacy

• The French Revolution had a significant impact on international relations, as European powers sought to contain the spread of revolutionary ideas
  • The Declaration of Pillnitz (1791) by Austria and Prussia threatened intervention in France if the monarchy was harmed
• The Napoleonic Wars reshaped the European balance of power, with France's military conquests and the formation of alliances and coalitions against Napoleon
  • The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) aimed to restore stability and balance in Europe after Napoleon's defeat
• The United States sought to maintain neutrality in European conflicts, as exemplified by Washington's Farewell Address (1796) and the Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)
  • However, the XYZ Affair and the Quasi-War with France strained Franco-American relations
• The Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) between France and Austria ended the War of the First Coalition and recognized French territorial gains in Italy and the Rhineland
• The Treaty of Amiens (1802) brought a temporary peace between France and Britain, but tensions remained high and war resumed in 1803

Legacy and Long-Term Consequences

• The French Revolution had far-reaching consequences, inspiring revolutionary movements and political reforms across Europe and the world
  • Its ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity continue to influence modern political thought
• The Napoleonic Wars led to significant changes in the European balance of power and the redrawing of national boundaries
  • The Congress of Vienna established a new political order that would shape European politics for decades
• The Haitian Revolution and the abolition of slavery in European colonies had a profound impact on the Atlantic world and the struggle for human rights
  • The success of the Haitian Revolution inspired other slave revolts and abolitionist movements
• The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, would continue to transform economies, societies, and daily life throughout the 19th century and beyond
  • Its effects on labor, urbanization, and social classes would shape the modern world
• The intellectual and cultural developments of the late 18th century, including the Enlightenment, Neoclassicism, and Romanticism, would continue to influence art, literature, and philosophy in the following centuries
  • The ideas of reason, individualism, and progress would remain central to Western thought