🇪🇺AP European History Unit 6 – Industrialization and Its Effects

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Industrialization refers to the transition from manual labor and home-based production to machine-based manufacturing in factories
• Industrial Revolution marks the period of rapid industrialization, technological advancements, and socioeconomic changes that began in Britain in the late 18th century and spread to other parts of Europe and North America
  • First Industrial Revolution (late 18th to early 19th century) focused on textile production, steam power, and iron manufacturing
  • Second Industrial Revolution (late 19th to early 20th century) introduced steel production, electricity, and chemical manufacturing
• Factors of production include land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship, which are combined to create goods and services
• Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production, free-market competition, and the pursuit of profit
• Laissez-faire is a hands-off approach to economic policy, advocating for minimal government intervention in the economy
• Socialism is an economic and political system that advocates for collective ownership of the means of production and equal distribution of resources
• Trade unions are organizations formed by workers to protect their rights, negotiate better working conditions, and advocate for higher wages

Origins and Causes of Industrialization

• Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century increased food production, freeing up labor for industrial work and supporting population growth
  • Enclosure movement consolidated small landholdings into larger, more efficient farms (England)
  • New crops and farming techniques (crop rotation, selective breeding) improved agricultural productivity
• Population growth in Europe provided a larger workforce and increased demand for goods
• Abundance of natural resources (coal, iron ore) in Britain facilitated the development of industries
• Colonial expansion and international trade provided raw materials, markets for finished goods, and capital for investment
  • Triangular Trade connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas through the exchange of manufactured goods, enslaved people, and raw materials
• Scientific advancements and the Enlightenment fostered a culture of innovation and experimentation
• Protestant work ethic emphasized hard work, thrift, and self-discipline, which aligned with the values of industrialization
• Political stability and strong property rights in Britain encouraged investment and entrepreneurship

Major Technological Innovations

• Steam engine, invented by James Watt in 1769, revolutionized transportation and manufacturing by providing a powerful and efficient energy source
  • Used to pump water out of coal mines, power textile machinery, and later, locomotives and steamships
• Spinning jenny, invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, mechanized the spinning process, increasing the efficiency of textile production
• Power loom, developed by Edmund Cartwright in 1785, automated the weaving process, further enhancing textile manufacturing
• Cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, separated cotton fibers from seeds, boosting cotton production and the textile industry
• Bessemer process, introduced by Henry Bessemer in 1856, made steel production faster, cheaper, and more efficient
  • Enabled the construction of skyscrapers, bridges, and railroads
• Electricity, harnessed and distributed in the late 19th century, powered factories, homes, and cities
  • Incandescent light bulb, invented by Thomas Edison in 1879, revolutionized lighting and extended working hours
• Internal combustion engine, developed in the late 19th century, powered automobiles and transformed transportation
• Assembly line, introduced by Ransom Olds in 1901 and popularized by Henry Ford, streamlined mass production and reduced costs

Changes in Production and Labor

• Factory system replaced cottage industries and home-based production, centralizing manufacturing in large, mechanized facilities
  • Economies of scale reduced costs and increased output
• Division of labor and specialization of tasks improved efficiency and productivity
  • Workers performed specific, repetitive tasks as part of a larger production process
• Mechanization and the use of machines replaced manual labor, reducing the need for skilled artisans
• Interchangeable parts, popularized by Eli Whitney, standardized production and made repairs easier
• Shift from rural to urban labor as factories were concentrated in cities
• Rise of the working class, consisting of factory workers, miners, and other wage laborers
• Harsh working conditions, including long hours (12-16 hours per day), low wages, and dangerous environments
  • Child labor was common, with children as young as 5 working in factories and mines
• Gender roles in the workplace changed, with women and children employed in textile mills and other industries
• Emergence of trade unions to advocate for workers' rights and better working conditions

Social and Economic Impacts

• Rapid urbanization as people migrated from rural areas to cities in search of factory work
  • Urban population in England and Wales increased from 20% in 1801 to 50% in 1851
• Widening economic inequality between factory owners and workers
  • Concentration of wealth among the bourgeoisie (middle class) and industrial capitalists
• Emergence of a new middle class, including professionals, managers, and shopkeepers
• Changes in family structure and gender roles as women and children entered the workforce
  • Shift from extended to nuclear families in urban areas
• Increased social mobility for some, as education and entrepreneurship provided opportunities for advancement
• Consumerism and the availability of mass-produced goods transformed daily life and culture
• Environmental degradation, including air and water pollution, as a result of industrial activities
• Health issues related to poor living and working conditions (respiratory diseases, malnutrition)
• Rise of leisure activities and entertainment (music halls, sports, seaside resorts) as disposable income increased for some

Urbanization and Living Conditions

• Rapid growth of cities led to overcrowding, poor sanitation, and the spread of diseases
  • Lack of proper sewage systems and clean water supply contributed to outbreaks of cholera and typhoid
• Slums and tenements housed the working class in cramped, unsanitary conditions
  • Lack of ventilation, running water, and proper waste disposal
• Poor urban planning and lack of green spaces in industrial cities
• Inadequate housing supply and high rents forced multiple families to share single rooms
• Pollution from factories and coal burning caused smog and respiratory issues
  • London's "Great Smog" of 1952 caused an estimated 4,000 deaths
• Lack of regulations on building safety and fire codes led to disasters (Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, 1911)
• Transportation improvements, such as horse-drawn omnibuses and later electric trams, facilitated urban expansion
• Reforms and public health initiatives in the late 19th century aimed to improve urban living conditions
  • Sanitary reform movement led to the construction of sewage systems and improved water supply (London's Metropolitan Board of Works)
  • Housing reforms and the development of garden cities (Ebenezer Howard) sought to create healthier living environments

Political Responses and Reforms

• Laissez-faire policies initially limited government intervention in the economy and working conditions
• Factory Acts in Britain (1802-1878) gradually regulated child labor, working hours, and factory conditions
  • Mines Act of 1842 prohibited women and boys under 10 from working underground
• Trade unions and labor movements advocated for workers' rights and better working conditions
  • Luddite movement (1811-1816) protested against mechanization and job displacement
  • Chartist movement (1838-1857) demanded political reforms and universal male suffrage
• Socialist and Marxist ideologies critiqued capitalism and called for workers' control of the means of production
  • Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published "The Communist Manifesto" in 1848
• Revolutions of 1848 across Europe reflected political and social unrest, with demands for democratic reforms and workers' rights
• Social welfare reforms in the late 19th and early 20th centuries addressed issues of poverty, health, and education
  • Bismarck's social insurance programs in Germany (1880s) provided sickness, accident, and old-age benefits
  • British Liberal Party reforms (1906-1914) introduced pensions, unemployment insurance, and health insurance
• Women's suffrage movements fought for political rights and equality
  • Seneca Falls Convention (1848) in the United States marked the beginning of the organized women's rights movement

Global Consequences and Spread of Industrialization

• Industrialization spread from Britain to other parts of Europe (Belgium, France, Germany) and North America in the 19th century
  • Uneven development and regional disparities within countries
• Colonialism and imperialism facilitated the spread of industrial technologies and practices to other parts of the world
  • European powers sought raw materials, markets, and investment opportunities in their colonies
• Globalization of trade and the expansion of international markets
  • Suez Canal (1869) and Panama Canal (1914) reduced shipping times and costs
• Technological diffusion and the adoption of industrial innovations in non-Western countries (Japan, Russia)
  • Meiji Restoration in Japan (1868) led to rapid industrialization and modernization
• Economic competition and rivalry among industrial powers
  • Tariff policies and trade barriers to protect domestic industries
• Social and cultural impact of industrialization on non-Western societies
  • Disruption of traditional ways of life and social hierarchies
  • Westernization and the spread of European cultural influences
• Environmental consequences of global industrialization
  • Deforestation, resource depletion, and loss of biodiversity
  • Carbon emissions and the long-term impact on climate change