🇪🇺AP European History Unit 8 – 20th Century Global Conflicts

Key Conflicts and Timeline

• World War I (1914-1918) began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and ended with the Treaty of Versailles
  • Involved major European powers, as well as the United States and Japan
  • Resulted in over 9 million military deaths and significant territorial changes
• Russian Civil War (1917-1922) followed the Russian Revolution and the collapse of the Russian Empire
  • Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, fought against the White Army and various independence movements
  • Resulted in the establishment of the Soviet Union
• Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) was a conflict between the Republicans, who were loyal to the left-leaning Second Spanish Republic, and the Nationalists, a fascist group led by General Francisco Franco
  • Served as a precursor to World War II, with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy supporting the Nationalists, and the Soviet Union supporting the Republicans
  • Ended with Franco's victory and the establishment of a dictatorship that lasted until 1975
• World War II (1939-1945) began with Germany's invasion of Poland and ended with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
  • Involved the vast majority of the world's countries, forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis
  • Resulted in an estimated 70-85 million fatalities, making it the deadliest conflict in human history
• Cold War (1947-1991) was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies
  • Characterized by an arms race, proxy wars, and ideological rivalry between capitalism and communism
  • Ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991

Major Powers and Alliances

• Allied Powers in World War I included France, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, and later the United States
  • Formed in opposition to the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria
• Axis Powers in World War II consisted of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan
  • Opposed by the Allies, which included Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and France
• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was formed in 1949 as a military alliance of Western countries to counter the threat of Soviet expansion
  • Originally included the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, and Portugal
• Warsaw Pact was a collective defense treaty established in 1955 among the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern European countries
  • Served as a counterbalance to NATO during the Cold War
  • Included the Soviet Union, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania

Causes and Triggers

• Nationalism and imperialism played significant roles in the lead-up to World War I
  • European powers competed for colonies and influence, leading to increased tensions and rivalries
• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian nationalist in 1914 triggered the outbreak of World War I
  • Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, leading to a chain reaction of alliances and declarations of war
• Rise of fascism and Nazism in Europe during the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II
  • Adolf Hitler's aggressive expansionism and the appeasement policy of Western powers led to the invasion of Poland in 1939
• Ideological differences and competing spheres of influence between the United States and the Soviet Union were the primary causes of the Cold War
  • The Truman Doctrine (1947) and the Marshall Plan (1948) aimed to contain the spread of communism, while the Soviet Union sought to expand its influence in Eastern Europe and beyond

Technological Advancements

• Machine guns, tanks, and chemical weapons were introduced during World War I, revolutionizing warfare
  • Machine guns, such as the Maxim gun, greatly increased the firepower of infantry units
  • Tanks, first used by the British in 1916, provided a mobile and armored platform for attacking enemy trenches
• Aircraft played a significant role in both world wars, evolving from reconnaissance and fighter planes to strategic bombers
  • The German Luftwaffe's Blitzkrieg tactics in World War II involved close coordination between air and ground forces
• Radar and sonar were developed during World War II, enhancing detection capabilities and early warning systems
  • British radar systems played a crucial role in the Battle of Britain (1940), helping to defend against German air raids
• Nuclear weapons, first developed by the United States during World War II, greatly influenced the balance of power during the Cold War
  • The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 demonstrated the devastating power of nuclear weapons
  • The arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union led to the development of increasingly powerful nuclear weapons and delivery systems, such as intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)

Battlefield Strategies and Tactics

• Trench warfare characterized much of the fighting on the Western Front during World War I
  • Soldiers fought from complex systems of trenches, often in stalemate conditions
  • Tactics such as artillery barrages, infantry assaults, and the use of poison gas were employed to break the deadlock
• Blitzkrieg, or "lightning war," was a military tactic used by Nazi Germany in World War II
  • Involved the rapid and coordinated attack of tanks, infantry, and aircraft to quickly overwhelm enemy defenses
  • Successfully employed in the invasions of Poland (1939), France (1940), and the early stages of the invasion of the Soviet Union (1941)
• Island hopping was a strategy used by the United States in the Pacific Theater of World War II
  • Involved capturing key islands held by the Japanese, bypassing heavily fortified positions, and establishing airfields and naval bases to support further advances
• Guerrilla warfare tactics were employed by various resistance movements during World War II and proxy wars during the Cold War
  • Involved small, mobile groups of fighters using hit-and-run tactics, sabotage, and ambushes to harass and disrupt enemy forces
  • Examples include the French Resistance during Nazi occupation and the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War

Social and Economic Impacts

• World War I resulted in significant loss of life, with millions of soldiers and civilians killed or wounded
  • The war also had a profound impact on social structures, with women entering the workforce in large numbers to replace men who had gone to fight
• The Great Depression, which began in 1929, was exacerbated by the economic fallout of World War I
  • Widespread unemployment, poverty, and social unrest characterized the period, contributing to the rise of extremist political movements
• World War II had a devastating impact on civilian populations, with widespread destruction of cities, mass evacuations, and the Holocaust
  • The Holocaust, the systematic murder of six million European Jews by the Nazis, remains one of the darkest chapters in human history
• The Cold War had far-reaching social and economic consequences, particularly in developing countries caught between the two superpowers
  • The arms race and proxy wars diverted resources from social and economic development, while the threat of nuclear war loomed large in public consciousness

Political Consequences

• The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, imposed harsh terms on Germany, including significant territorial losses, military restrictions, and war reparations
  • The treaty's perceived unfairness contributed to the rise of Nazi Germany and the eventual outbreak of World War II
• The aftermath of World War II saw the emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as the two dominant superpowers
  • The division of Europe into Western and Eastern blocs, separated by the "Iron Curtain," set the stage for the Cold War
• Decolonization gained momentum in the post-World War II era, with many former colonies in Asia and Africa gaining independence
  • The process was often marked by political instability, ethnic conflicts, and the influence of Cold War rivalries
• The end of the Cold War, marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, led to a realignment of the global political order
  • The United States emerged as the world's sole superpower, while the former Soviet republics and Eastern European countries underwent political and economic transitions

Legacy and Modern Relevance

• The legacy of 20th-century global conflicts continues to shape international relations and geopolitics today
  • The United Nations, established in 1945, aims to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, and promote social progress and better living standards
• The Cold War's impact on global politics, economics, and culture is still evident in the 21st century
  • The divide between the United States and Russia, as well as tensions on the Korean Peninsula and in other regions, can be traced back to Cold War-era conflicts and alliances
• The rise of international terrorism, particularly in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, has led to a global "War on Terror" and increased focus on national security and counterterrorism efforts
  • The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as ongoing conflicts in the Middle East and North Africa, are in part a consequence of 20th-century global conflicts and their aftermath
• The study of 20th-century global conflicts provides valuable lessons for understanding and addressing contemporary challenges, such as nuclear proliferation, ethnic and religious conflicts, and the impact of technology on warfare
  • Analyzing the causes, consequences, and legacy of these conflicts can inform efforts to promote peace, stability, and international cooperation in the face of ongoing global challenges