👩🏾‍⚖️AP US Government AP Cram Sessions 2021

Key Concepts and Theories

• Separation of powers divides the federal government into three branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful
• Checks and balances system allows each branch to limit the powers of the other branches to maintain a balance of power
  • Examples include the president's veto power, Congress' power to override a veto, and the Supreme Court's power of judicial review
• Federalism is the division of power between the national government and state governments, with the Constitution granting specific powers to the federal government and reserving the rest for the states
• Limited government principle restricts the power of the government to protect individual rights and liberties
• Rule of law establishes that everyone, including government officials, must follow the law and face consequences for violations
• Republicanism is a system of government in which the people elect representatives to govern on their behalf, as opposed to a direct democracy where citizens participate directly in decision-making
• Pluralism recognizes the diversity of interests and groups in society and their ability to influence government policy through various means (lobbying, campaign contributions, and voting)

Historical Context

• The American Revolution (1765-1783) was a colonial revolt against British rule, inspired by Enlightenment ideas of natural rights, self-government, and resistance to tyranny
• The Articles of Confederation (1777-1789) served as the first constitution of the United States, establishing a weak central government and granting most power to the states
  • Weaknesses included the inability to tax, regulate trade, or enforce laws, leading to economic and political instability
• Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787) was an armed uprising in Massachusetts by farmers protesting high taxes and debt, highlighting the need for a stronger central government
• The Constitutional Convention (1787) gathered delegates from 12 states to revise the Articles of Confederation, ultimately leading to the creation of a new Constitution
  • Key compromises included the Great Compromise (proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate) and the Three-Fifths Compromise (counting enslaved individuals as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes)
• The Federalist Papers (1787-1788) were a series of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to promote ratification of the Constitution, addressing concerns about the balance of power and protection of individual rights
• The Bill of Rights (1791) comprises the first ten amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing essential rights and freedoms (freedom of speech, religion, and due process) and limiting government power

Constitutional Foundations

• The Preamble states the purpose of the Constitution and outlines the goals of the government, including establishing justice, ensuring domestic tranquility, and promoting the general welfare
• Article I establishes the legislative branch (Congress) and outlines its powers, such as the power to tax, regulate commerce, and declare war
  • Congress is divided into two chambers: the House of Representatives (proportional representation) and the Senate (equal representation)
• Article II creates the executive branch, headed by the President, and outlines the powers and responsibilities of the office, including serving as commander-in-chief and enforcing laws
• Article III establishes the judicial branch, consisting of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, and grants the power of judicial review to interpret laws and determine their constitutionality
• Article IV addresses the relationship between the states and the federal government, ensuring that each state respects the laws and decisions of other states and guaranteeing a republican form of government
• Article V outlines the process for amending the Constitution, requiring a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states
• Articles VI and VII cover miscellaneous provisions, such as the supremacy of the Constitution over state laws and the process for ratification

Branches of Government

• The legislative branch, consisting of the bicameral Congress (House of Representatives and Senate), is responsible for creating laws
  • Representatives serve two-year terms and are elected based on population, while Senators serve six-year terms with two per state
• The executive branch, headed by the President, is responsible for enforcing laws and conducting foreign policy
  • The President is elected to a four-year term through the Electoral College system and can serve a maximum of two terms
  • The Vice President serves as the President's second-in-command and presides over the Senate
• The judicial branch, consisting of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, interprets laws and determines their constitutionality
  • Supreme Court justices are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, serving lifetime appointments to ensure independence from political pressures
• The system of checks and balances allows each branch to limit the power of the others
  • Examples include the President's power to veto legislation, Congress' power to override a veto with a two-thirds majority, and the Supreme Court's power to declare laws unconstitutional
• The impeachment process allows Congress to remove federal officials, including the President, for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors"
  • The House brings charges (articles of impeachment) and the Senate conducts the trial, requiring a two-thirds majority to convict and remove from office

Civil Rights and Liberties

• Civil liberties are individual freedoms protected from government interference, such as freedom of speech, religion, and due process
  • The Bill of Rights (first ten amendments) guarantees many of these liberties, such as the First Amendment's protection of free speech and the Fourth Amendment's protection against unreasonable searches and seizures
• Civil rights are guarantees of equal treatment and protection under the law, regardless of race, gender, or other characteristics
  • The 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause prohibits discrimination by state governments, while the Civil Rights Act of 1964 bans discrimination in public accommodations and employment
• The due process clause of the 5th and 14th Amendments ensures fair legal proceedings and protects individuals from arbitrary government action
  • Procedural due process requires fair procedures (notice and hearing) before the government can deprive someone of life, liberty, or property
  • Substantive due process protects fundamental rights from government interference, such as the right to privacy and marriage
• The incorporation doctrine applies the Bill of Rights to state governments through the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause, ensuring that states cannot infringe upon federally protected rights
• Landmark Supreme Court cases have expanded civil rights and liberties, such as Brown v. Board of Education (1954) which declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional and Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) which legalized same-sex marriage nationwide

Political Participation and Elections

• Voting is the most fundamental form of political participation in a democracy, allowing citizens to choose their representatives and influence policy
  • The 15th, 19th, and 26th Amendments expanded voting rights to African Americans, women, and 18-year-olds, respectively
  • The Voting Rights Act of 1965 banned discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy tests and poll taxes
• Political parties are organizations that seek to win elections and control government policy by nominating candidates and mobilizing voters
  • The United States has a two-party system dominated by the Democratic and Republican parties, with minor parties playing a smaller role
• The electoral process includes primary elections (to choose party nominees) and general elections (to determine the final winner)
  • The Electoral College system elects the President, with each state allocated electors based on its representation in Congress
  • A candidate must win a majority (270) of the 538 electoral votes to become President; if no candidate reaches this threshold, the House of Representatives chooses the winner
• Interest groups are organizations that seek to influence government policy on behalf of their members or a particular cause
  • Tactics include lobbying, campaign contributions, and mobilizing public opinion through advocacy and media campaigns
• The media plays a crucial role in informing the public and shaping political discourse
  • The rise of social media and alternative news sources has fragmented the media landscape and raised concerns about the spread of misinformation and political polarization

Public Policy and Current Issues

• Public policy refers to the actions taken by the government to address societal problems and promote the public good
  • Examples include economic policy (taxes and spending), social policy (welfare and education), and foreign policy (diplomacy and military action)
• The policy-making process involves problem identification, agenda setting, policy formulation, adoption, implementation, and evaluation
  • Multiple actors, such as elected officials, interest groups, and the media, influence this process at each stage
• Current issues facing the United States include:
  • Healthcare reform and the debate over universal coverage and cost control
  • Immigration policy and the balance between border security, legal immigration, and the status of undocumented immigrants
  • Climate change and the role of government in regulating greenhouse gas emissions and promoting renewable energy
  • Racial justice and police reform in the wake of high-profile cases of police brutality and systemic racism
  • Economic inequality and the debate over policies such as minimum wage increases, progressive taxation, and social welfare programs
• The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of effective public health policy and the challenges of balancing public safety with individual liberties and economic considerations
• The role of the United States in the international community, including its alliances, trade relationships, and military commitments, remains a critical aspect of foreign policy debate

Exam Strategies and Practice

• Familiarize yourself with the format and timing of the AP U.S. Government and Politics exam
  • The exam consists of a multiple-choice section (55 questions in 80 minutes) and a free-response section (4 questions in 100 minutes)
• Review the course content outline and focus on the key concepts, institutions, and processes covered in each unit
  • Use textbooks, class notes, and reliable online resources to reinforce your understanding of the material
• Practice answering multiple-choice questions under timed conditions to improve your speed and accuracy
  • Analyze the question stems and eliminate incorrect answer choices before selecting the best option
  • Pay attention to key terms, such as "most," "least," and "except," which can change the meaning of the question
• Develop a strategy for tackling the free-response questions, which require a clear and well-organized argument supported by relevant evidence
  • Read the question carefully and underline key terms and instructions
  • Outline your response before writing to ensure a logical flow of ideas
  • Use specific examples and references to course concepts to support your claims
  • Manage your time effectively by allocating enough time for each question and reserving time for proofreading
• Engage in self-reflection and identify areas of strength and weakness in your understanding of the course material
  • Focus your studying on topics that require more attention and practice
• Collaborate with classmates to review content, discuss complex topics, and provide feedback on each other's work
  • Engaging in active discussion and debate can deepen your understanding and expose you to different perspectives
• Take advantage of practice exams and released free-response questions available through the College Board and other reputable sources
  • Simulate test conditions and time yourself to build endurance and reduce anxiety on exam day
  • Review your answers and analyze your mistakes to identify patterns and areas for improvement