🚜AP Human Geography Unit 4 – Political Geography

Key Concepts in Political Geography

• Political geography studies the spatial organization of political processes and how politics is affected by geographical factors
• Territoriality involves the control and management of space, often through the establishment of borders and boundaries
• Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority of a state to govern itself and make decisions independently within its territory
• Nation-states are political entities with a defined territory, permanent population, government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states
• Geopolitics examines the influence of geographical factors (location, resources, population) on the foreign policy and power dynamics between states
• Borders and boundaries serve as physical and symbolic markers of political control and jurisdiction
• Political power is often spatially concentrated in core regions or urban centers, while periphery areas may experience less influence and development

Historical Development of Political Borders

• Early political borders were often defined by natural features like rivers, mountains, and deserts (Ural Mountains between Europe and Asia)
• Colonialism and imperialism led to the arbitrary division of territories, often disregarding ethnic, linguistic, or cultural boundaries (Scramble for Africa)
• Post-World War I peace conferences (Paris Peace Conference) redrew political borders, leading to the creation of new nation-states
  • The Treaty of Versailles established new countries in Europe (Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia)
  • The Sykes-Picot Agreement divided the Ottoman Empire's territories in the Middle East between British and French spheres of influence
• Decolonization in the mid-20th century resulted in the emergence of newly independent states, particularly in Africa and Asia (India, Nigeria)
• The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union led to the formation of new states in Eastern Europe and Central Asia (Ukraine, Kazakhstan)
• Globalization and supranational organizations have challenged traditional notions of state sovereignty and borders (European Union, NAFTA)

Types of States and Territories

• Unitary states have a centralized government that holds supreme authority over all regions and subdivisions (France, China)
• Federal states divide power between a central government and regional governments, each with their own jurisdictions (United States, Germany)
• Confederations are loose associations of independent states that cooperate for specific purposes (former Confederate States of America)
• Autonomous regions have a degree of self-governance within a larger state, often based on ethnic, linguistic, or cultural distinctiveness (Catalonia in Spain, Kurdistan in Iraq)
• Disputed territories are areas claimed by two or more states, often leading to conflict and instability (Kashmir between India and Pakistan, Crimea between Russia and Ukraine)
• Microstates are small independent states with limited territory and population (Monaco, Vatican City)
• Dependent territories are under the sovereignty of another state, often as a result of colonialism (French Guiana, Puerto Rico)

Geopolitical Theories and Models

• Heartland Theory, proposed by Halford Mackinder, emphasizes the strategic importance of controlling the Eurasian landmass
  • The "Heartland" refers to the interior of Eurasia, seen as the key to global power
  • The theory suggests that whoever controls the Heartland can dominate the "World Island" (Eurasia and Africa) and, subsequently, the world
• Rimland Theory, developed by Nicholas Spykman, focuses on the importance of controlling the coastal regions surrounding the Eurasian Heartland
  • The Rimland includes Western Europe, the Middle East, South Asia, and East Asia
  • Spykman argued that the Rimland, not the Heartland, was the key to global power due to its access to sea power and resources
• World Systems Theory, proposed by Immanuel Wallerstein, divides the world into core, periphery, and semi-periphery regions based on economic and political power
  • Core regions are industrialized, economically advanced, and politically dominant (United States, Western Europe)
  • Periphery regions are less developed, often exploited for raw materials and cheap labor (many countries in Africa, Latin America)
  • Semi-periphery regions have characteristics of both core and periphery, often acting as a buffer between them (Brazil, China)
• Domino Theory, popular during the Cold War, suggested that the fall of one country to communism would lead to the fall of neighboring countries
  • The theory was used to justify U.S. intervention in Vietnam and other countries to prevent the spread of communism
• Clash of Civilizations, proposed by Samuel Huntington, argues that future conflicts will be based on cultural and religious differences rather than ideological or economic factors
  • Huntington identified major civilizations, including Western, Islamic, Sinic, Hindu, and others, predicting tensions along the fault lines between them

Nationalism and Separatist Movements

• Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, and a sense of belonging to a nation, often based on shared culture, language, or history
• Civic nationalism defines national identity based on shared citizenship, values, and institutions, regardless of ethnic or cultural background (United States, France)
• Ethnic nationalism defines national identity based on shared ethnicity, language, or culture, often leading to exclusionary policies (former Yugoslavia, Rwanda)
• Separatist movements seek to establish an independent state or autonomous region, often driven by ethnic, linguistic, or religious differences
  • Examples include the Basque separatist movement in Spain, the Quebecois movement in Canada, and the Kurdish independence movement in the Middle East
• Irredentism is a form of nationalism that seeks to unite a dispersed ethnic group or territory with a neighboring state (Greater Albania, Pan-Arabism)
• Secession is the formal withdrawal of a region or state from a larger political entity (South Sudan from Sudan, Eritrea from Ethiopia)
• Devolution is the transfer of power from a central government to regional or local governments, often in response to separatist pressures (Scotland and Wales in the United Kingdom)

International Organizations and Global Governance

• The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization that aims to maintain international peace, security, and cooperation
  • The UN Security Council has the power to authorize peacekeeping missions, impose sanctions, and approve the use of force
  • UN agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), address specific global issues
• The European Union (EU) is a supranational organization that promotes economic, political, and social integration among its member states
  • The EU has a common market, a single currency (the euro), and a shared parliament and court system
  • The Schengen Agreement allows for the free movement of people within most EU member states
• The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance of North American and European countries, committed to collective defense
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) regulates international trade and promotes free trade policies among its member states
• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank provide financial assistance and development aid to countries, often with conditions attached
• Regional organizations, such as the African Union (AU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the Organization of American States (OAS), promote cooperation and integration within their respective regions

Contemporary Political Geography Issues

• Border disputes and territorial conflicts continue to be a source of tension and instability in many regions (Israel-Palestine, India-Pakistan, China-Taiwan)
• The rise of non-state actors, such as terrorist groups and multinational corporations, challenges traditional state sovereignty and security (Al-Qaeda, Islamic State, Apple, Amazon)
• Climate change and environmental degradation have geopolitical implications, such as resource scarcity, migration, and conflict (water disputes in the Nile River Basin, climate refugees in the Pacific Islands)
• The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of global cooperation in addressing transnational threats, as well as the challenges of coordinating responses across borders
• The increasing use of technology, such as social media and cyberwarfare, has created new dimensions in political geography (Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, the role of Twitter in the Arab Spring)
• The rise of populist and nationalist movements has led to a backlash against globalization and supranational institutions (Brexit, the election of Donald Trump)
• Migration, both voluntary and forced, has become a contentious political issue, with debates over border control, citizenship, and integration (Syrian refugee crisis, U.S.-Mexico border wall)

Case Studies and Real-World Applications

• The Crimean crisis (2014) illustrates the complex interplay of history, ethnicity, and geopolitics in shaping territorial disputes
  • Crimea, historically part of Russia, was transferred to Ukraine in 1954 during the Soviet era
  • In 2014, Russia annexed Crimea following a controversial referendum, leading to international condemnation and sanctions
• The South China Sea dispute involves competing territorial claims among China, Taiwan, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei
  • The region is strategically important due to its shipping lanes, energy reserves, and fishing grounds
  • China's construction of artificial islands and military installations has raised tensions and prompted international arbitration
• The Rohingya crisis in Myanmar highlights the consequences of ethnic nationalism and the challenges of protecting minority rights
  • The Rohingya, a Muslim minority in predominantly Buddhist Myanmar, have faced discrimination, violence, and forced displacement
  • The crisis has led to a massive refugee influx into neighboring Bangladesh and international accusations of ethnic cleansing and genocide
• The Arctic region has become a new frontier in geopolitical competition due to climate change and the potential for resource extraction and shipping routes
  • The melting of Arctic sea ice has made previously inaccessible areas more accessible, leading to competing territorial claims among the Arctic states (Russia, Canada, the United States, Norway, and Denmark)
  • The region has also become a focus of great power rivalry, with Russia and China seeking to expand their influence and military presence
• The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a long-standing territorial dispute with deep historical, religious, and political roots
  • The conflict revolves around competing claims to the land between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, particularly the status of Jerusalem and the rights of Palestinian refugees
  • Despite numerous peace initiatives and international mediation efforts, the conflict remains unresolved, with ongoing tensions and sporadic violence