6.9 Responses to Immigration

The growing number of immigrants in the country prompted a multitude of responses from Americans. It was apparent that these individuals often struggled to assimilate and, more importantly, comprised the lowest social classes of America. 

Social Darwinism

During the Gilded Age, the gap between the rich and poor classes in the United States grew significantly. Many Americans, particularly those who were wealthy and powerful, subscribed to the idea of Social Darwinism, which held that the wealthy and powerful were naturally superior and deserved their success. This idea was often used to justify the exploitation of immigrants and other marginalized groups. The idea of assimilation was also used to justify the forced acculturation of immigrants and other minority groups, as well as the forced removal and relocation of Native American communities in the West.

Immigrants during this time faced significant challenges in navigating American society and balancing their old cultural traditions with the demands of their new reality. Many faced discrimination and poverty, and had to work hard to assimilate and make a life for themselves in the United States. Despite these challenges, many immigrants persevered and contributed to the diversity and growth of the country.

One example of the impact of Social Darwinism during the Gilded Age can be seen in the treatment of immigrants in the workforce. Many industrialists and factory owners believed in the idea that the wealthy and powerful were naturally superior and deserved their success, and they used this belief to justify the exploitation of immigrants and other marginalized groups in the workforce. Immigrant workers were often paid lower wages, worked longer hours, and faced dangerous and unhealthy working conditions.

Additionally, the idea of assimilation was also used to justify the forced acculturation of immigrants and other minority groups, as well as the forced removal and relocation of Native American communities in the West. Immigrants were pressured to abandon their cultural traditions and adopt American customs and values, and their children were often forced to attend American schools that did not respect their cultural heritage.

Despite these challenges, many immigrants persevered and contributed to the diversity and growth of the country, despite facing discrimination and poverty. They played a vital role in building the nation's infrastructure and economy, and many of them formed tight-knit communities that helped them to survive and thrive in the new land.

Settlement Houses

Settlement homes, such as Hull House established by Jane Addams in Chicago, were established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to help immigrants assimilate into American society. These homes provided a variety of services to immigrants, including English classes, job training, and assistance with finding employment. They also offered educational and cultural programs, as well as a safe and welcoming space for immigrants to come together and support each other.

Hull House, which was one of the most famous settlement houses, was established in 1889 by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. It was located in a predominantly immigrant neighborhood and provided a wide range of services to the community, including a nursery, a gym, a library, and an art studio. It also offered classes in subjects such as English, history, and civics, as well as job training programs.

Settlement houses like Hull House played a crucial role in helping immigrants assimilate and adjust to life in the United States. They helped immigrants learn the language and customs of their new country, as well as providing them with the skills and resources they needed to find jobs and build better lives for themselves and their families.

Ethnic Enclaves and Tenements

Many immigrants who settled in cities during the Gilded Age and early 20th century developed ethnic enclaves, which were neighborhoods where people of a particular ethnic or national background lived together. These enclaves helped immigrants maintain a sense of community and culture, as well as provided them with a sense of familiarity and support in their new country.

One of the main reasons why ethnic enclaves developed was that many immigrants were concentrated in inner-city neighborhoods and could not afford housing elsewhere. Landlords in these neighborhoods often divided up housing into small, windowless rooms in order to increase their profits, resulting in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions.

The resulting slums and tenement apartments were often overcrowded and squalid, with many families crammed into one small space. In an attempt to correct the unlivable conditions, the city of New York passed a law in 1870 known as the "Tenement House Act" which required each bedroom to have a window, and set standards for ventilation, light and sanitation.

Despite these efforts, many immigrants continued to live in poor and overcrowded conditions, as the supply of affordable housing did not keep pace with the growing number of immigrants arriving to the cities.

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The "dumbbell tenement" was a type of apartment building that was built in response to the Tenement House Act of 1870 in New York City. The design, which was created by architect James Ware, was intended to provide more light and ventilation to the apartments than traditional tenements, but it was also a way for landlords to comply with the law in the most economical way possible.

The dumbbell tenement was characterized by its shape, which resembled a giant dumbbell, with the building narrowed in the middle to create an air shaft between adjoining buildings. The design typically rose over seven stories and packed 30, 4-room apartments into a lot that was only 25 by 100 feet.

The layout of the dumbbell tenement was such that between 4 and 16 families lived on a floor, with 2 toilets in the hall on each floor. But this design had a number of problems. The airshaft was not only narrow but also dark and unventilated, the toilet facilities were inadequate and the stairwells were often dark, narrow and poorly ventilated making them a fire trap.

Due to the overcrowding and poor living conditions in these tenements, they continue to promote the spread of deadly diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis. Many of these diseases were spread through contaminated water and poor sanitation, which were major issues in the overcrowded slums and tenements of the time.

Muckrakers

To bring attention to the plight of the poor and the dire living conditions in urban areas, a group of journalists and reformers known as "muckrakers" emerged. These muckrakers wrote articles, books, and took photographs to expose the realities of life in the slums and tenements, and to urge Americans to focus on urban reform.

One of the most prominent muckrakers was Jacob Riis, who wrote "How the Other Half Lives," a photo essay of the poor and tenement conditions. The book was published in 1890 and it was a very powerful and influential publication that used photographs and text to document the living conditions of immigrants and the poor in New York City's tenements. Riis's book was instrumental in bringing attention to the need for urban reform.

Another notable muckraker was Lewis Hine, who took photographs of immigrants and working-class people in cities across the United States, with a focus on child labor. He also wrote articles and books to expose the poor working conditions, and the negative impact it had on children. Hine's photographs were an important tool in the fight for social reform and helped to bring about important changes in labor laws.

The efforts of these muckrakers and other urban reformers helped to raise awareness of the issues facing the poor and working-class people in urban areas and played an important role in bringing about changes in housing, labor, and social welfare policies.

Nativists

During the Gilded Age, a significant number of immigrants came to the United States seeking better economic opportunities. However, the rapid influx of immigrants led to growing concerns among some Americans, particularly those who identified as nativists. Nativists were individuals who believed in the superiority of native-born Americans and often spoke out against unregulated immigration.

In response to these concerns, the United States government began to pass legislation to limit immigration. One of the first federal laws to restrict immigration was the Immigration Act of 1882. This law placed a 50-cent tax on each immigrant, and excluded certain groups, such as convicts and those with certain diseases, from entering the country.

Another significant piece of legislation was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. This law effectively halted Chinese immigration to the United States for over 60 years. The act was passed as a reaction to the growing number of Chinese immigrants who had come to the United States to work on the transcontinental railroad and in the mines during the late 19th century. Nativists and labor groups had lobbied for the law, arguing that the Chinese immigrants were taking jobs away from native-born Americans.

These laws, along with others that followed, such as the National Origins Act of 1924, significantly limited the number of immigrants who were able to enter the United States during this period. The legislation reflected the growing concern among some Americans about the effects of immigration on the country's economy and society.

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