🕯️Archaeology of the Holy Land Unit 11 – Mamluk and Ottoman Eras in the Holy Land

Historical Context

• Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt, Syria, and the Hijaz from 1250 to 1517 CE after overthrowing the Ayyubid dynasty
• Mamluks were originally slave soldiers of Turkic and Circassian origin who rose to power through military prowess
• Ottoman Empire conquered Mamluk territories in 1516-1517, establishing control over the Holy Land for the next 400 years
• Ottoman rule brought stability and centralized administration to the region, with the Holy Land divided into the eyalets (provinces) of Damascus, Sidon, and Safed
• The Ottomans implemented the millet system, allowing religious communities (Muslims, Christians, and Jews) to govern their own affairs under the authority of the Sultan
• European powers (France, Britain, and Russia) increasingly intervened in Ottoman affairs during the 19th century, seeking to protect their interests and the rights of religious minorities
• The Tanzimat reforms (1839-1876) aimed to modernize the Ottoman state and society, introducing secular education, legal reforms, and increased centralization

Key Figures and Dynasties

• Mamluk Sultans, such as Baibars (1260-1277), Qalawun (1279-1290), and An-Nasir Muhammad (1293-1341), consolidated Mamluk power and patronized architecture and arts
• The Bahri (1250-1382) and Burji (1382-1517) Mamluk dynasties ruled successively, with the Burji period marked by increasing political instability and economic challenges
• Ottoman Sultans, including Selim I (1512-1520), Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566), and Abdülhamid II (1876-1909), shaped the empire's policies and relations with European powers
• Local notables and families, such as the Al-Husayni and Al-Khalidi in Jerusalem, played important roles in the administration and social life of the Holy Land
• Sheikh Zahir al-Umar (1690-1775) established a semi-autonomous rule in Galilee, promoting trade and development in the region

Political and Social Structures

• The Mamluk Sultanate was a military oligarchy, with power concentrated in the hands of the Sultan and the Mamluk elite
• Mamluks were organized into households (sing. bayt) based on their ethnic or regional origins, with rivalries between households often leading to political instability
• The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy, with the Sultan holding ultimate authority over all aspects of government and society
• The Ottoman provincial administration was headed by governors (pashas) appointed by the Sultan, with local officials (qadis, muftis, and naibs) responsible for justice, religious affairs, and tax collection
• Society was organized along religious lines, with Muslims forming the majority and enjoying privileged status, while Christians and Jews were recognized as protected minorities (dhimmis)
• Agricultural production and land tenure were based on the iqta' (Mamluk) and timar (Ottoman) systems, with the state granting land revenues to military officers in exchange for their service
• Urban guilds played a significant role in the economic and social life of cities, regulating production, prices, and quality of goods

Architecture and Urban Development

• Mamluk architecture is renowned for its monumental buildings, such as mosques, madrasas (religious schools), and mausoleums, characterized by the use of ablaq (alternating light and dark stone), muqarnas (stalactite vaulting), and intricate geometric and floral decoration
• Notable Mamluk buildings in the Holy Land include the Al-Aqsa Mosque, the Dome of the Rock, and the Madrasa of Sultan Hasan in Jerusalem
• Ottoman architecture in the Holy Land initially continued Mamluk traditions but later developed a distinct style influenced by Byzantine and Persian elements
• Important Ottoman monuments include the Süleymaniye Complex in Jerusalem, the Al-Jazzar Mosque in Acre, and the Mahmoudiya Mosque in Jaffa
• Urban development during the Mamluk and Ottoman periods focused on the construction and maintenance of religious, commercial, and public buildings, such as khans (caravanserais), souks (markets), and hammams (public baths)
• The Ottomans undertook major infrastructure projects, such as the restoration of the Dome of the Rock and the construction of the Jerusalem-Jaffa road, to facilitate pilgrimage and trade

Art and Material Culture

• Mamluk art is characterized by the production of high-quality metalwork (brass, bronze, and silver inlaid with gold and silver), glass, textiles, and ceramics
• Illuminated manuscripts, particularly Qurans and scientific treatises, were produced in Mamluk scriptoria and libraries, showcasing calligraphy and miniature painting
• Ottoman art in the Holy Land was influenced by the imperial styles of Istanbul, with a focus on calligraphy, textiles (silk and velvet), and ceramics (Iznik ware)
• The Armenians of Jerusalem were renowned for their production of painted tiles and pottery, which decorated many Ottoman-era buildings
• European influence on art and material culture increased in the 19th century, with the introduction of new techniques, such as photography and lithography, and the establishment of foreign missions and schools

Religious Influences and Holy Sites

• The Mamluk and Ottoman periods saw the continuation of the Holy Land's significance as a center of religious pilgrimage and devotion for Muslims, Christians, and Jews
• The Haram al-Sharif (Noble Sanctuary) in Jerusalem, containing the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, remained the most important Islamic holy site in the region
• The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, believed to be the site of Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection, was a major pilgrimage destination for Christians
• The Western Wall (Kotel) in Jerusalem, a remnant of the Second Temple, served as a focal point of Jewish prayer and pilgrimage
• Sufism (Islamic mysticism) played a significant role in the religious life of the Holy Land, with numerous Sufi orders (tariqas) establishing zawiyas (lodges) and attracting followers
• The Ottoman Sultans assumed the role of protectors of the Islamic holy sites and the custodians of the Two Holy Mosques (Mecca and Medina), enhancing their religious legitimacy

Archaeological Evidence and Discoveries

• Archaeological excavations have revealed significant remains from the Mamluk and Ottoman periods, providing insights into the architecture, material culture, and daily life of the time
• The Citadel of Jerusalem (Tower of David) has yielded evidence of Mamluk and Ottoman fortifications and palatial structures
• Excavations in Acre have uncovered the remains of the Mamluk-era city wall, the Khan al-Umdan (Pillar Caravanserai), and the Ottoman-era Citadel and mosques
• The Red Sea port of Aqaba has revealed Mamluk and Ottoman-era shipwrecks, shedding light on maritime trade and navigation
• Surveys and excavations in rural areas have provided information on agricultural practices, village life, and the production of ceramics and other crafts
• The study of Mamluk and Ottoman inscriptions, coins, and documents has contributed to our understanding of the political, economic, and social history of the period

Legacy and Impact on Modern Middle East

• The Mamluk and Ottoman periods left a lasting impact on the political, social, and cultural landscape of the modern Middle East
• The Ottoman millet system and the legacy of religious pluralism continue to shape the identity and relations of religious communities in the region
• The Ottoman Land Code of 1858 and the Tanzimat reforms laid the foundations for modern land tenure, property rights, and legal systems in many Middle Eastern countries
• The rise of Arab nationalism and the Arab Revolt of 1916-1918 against Ottoman rule paved the way for the emergence of modern Arab states and the redrawing of the region's borders after World War I
• The British Mandate in Palestine (1920-1948) and the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 can be seen as a continuation of the long history of foreign intervention and competing claims over the Holy Land
• The architectural and artistic heritage of the Mamluk and Ottoman periods continues to shape the cultural identity and tourism industry of the region, with many historic buildings and monuments serving as important landmarks and attractions
• The study of Mamluk and Ottoman history provides valuable insights into the complex political, social, and cultural dynamics that have shaped the modern Middle East