4.4 Archaeological evidence for biblical narratives

Archaeological evidence sheds light on biblical narratives during the Iron Age. Inscriptions, texts, and excavations in Jerusalem provide tangible connections between historical records and biblical accounts. These findings offer glimpses into the daily lives and political structures of ancient Israel and Judah.

Material culture, including pottery and architecture, helps archaeologists piece together the chronology and social organization of the period. Debates surrounding sites like Khirbet Qeiyafa highlight the ongoing discussions about the extent and nature of the United Monarchy described in the Bible.

Inscriptions and Texts

Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah

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• Tel Dan Stele (9th century BCE) contains the earliest extra-biblical reference to the "House of David", providing evidence for the Davidic dynasty in Judah
• Mesha Stele (9th century BCE) describes the revolt of Mesha, king of Moab, against the Kingdom of Israel, corroborating the biblical account in 2 Kings 3
• Siloam Tunnel Inscription (8th century BCE) commemorates the construction of Hezekiah's Tunnel in Jerusalem, which is also mentioned in 2 Kings 20:20 and 2 Chronicles 32:30
• Lachish Letters (early 6th century BCE) are a series of ostraca discovered at the site of Lachish, providing insight into the final days of the Kingdom of Judah before its destruction by the Babylonians

Administrative and Economic Records

• Samaria ostraca (8th century BCE) are inscribed potsherds from the capital of the Kingdom of Israel, documenting the delivery of wine and oil to the royal storehouses
• Bullae and seal impressions (8th-6th centuries BCE) are clay sealings used to secure documents or containers, often bearing the names and titles of officials from the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah
• These administrative and economic records provide evidence for the bureaucratic and commercial activities within the kingdoms, as well as the names of individuals mentioned in the Bible (Baruch, Hezekiah's servant in Jeremiah 36:4)

Assyrian and Babylonian Sources

• Assyrian palace reliefs (8th-7th centuries BCE) depict the military campaigns of Assyrian kings, including the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel and the siege of Jerusalem during the reign of Hezekiah
• Sennacherib's Prism (early 7th century BCE) is an Assyrian clay prism that records the campaigns of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, including his invasion of Judah and the tribute paid by Hezekiah, as described in 2 Kings 18-19 and Isaiah 36-37
• These Assyrian and Babylonian sources provide external confirmation of events described in the Bible, as well as additional details and perspectives on the interactions between the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their powerful neighbors

Jerusalem Excavations

City of David and Hezekiah's Tunnel

• City of David excavations have uncovered remains of the ancient city of Jerusalem, including fortifications, dwellings, and public buildings from the Iron Age (1200-586 BCE)
• Hezekiah's Tunnel is an underground water channel constructed during the reign of King Hezekiah (late 8th century BCE) to bring water from the Gihon Spring into the city of Jerusalem
• The tunnel's construction is mentioned in 2 Kings 20:20 and 2 Chronicles 32:30, and its discovery provides archaeological confirmation of this biblical event
• The Siloam Tunnel Inscription, found near the exit of the tunnel, commemorates its construction and further supports the biblical account

Bullae and Seal Impressions

• Bullae and seal impressions are small clay sealings used to secure documents or containers in ancient times
• Many bullae and seal impressions bearing the names of biblical figures (Gemaryahu son of Shaphan in Jeremiah 36:10, Azaryahu son of Hilkiyahu in 1 Chronicles 9:11) have been discovered in Jerusalem, particularly in the City of David excavations
• These artifacts provide evidence for the existence of individuals mentioned in the Bible and shed light on the administrative practices and social hierarchy of the Kingdom of Judah

Iron Age Material Culture

Khirbet Qeiyafa and the Debate over the United Monarchy

• Khirbet Qeiyafa is a fortified city in the Judean Shephelah that dates to the early 10th century BCE, the time of the biblical United Monarchy under David and Solomon
• The discovery of a massive fortification system, a palace, and two gates at Khirbet Qeiyafa has led some archaeologists to argue for the existence of a centralized state in Judah during this period, supporting the biblical account of the United Monarchy
• However, other scholars contend that the evidence from Khirbet Qeiyafa is not sufficient to prove the existence of a large-scale, unified kingdom as described in the Bible

Iron Age Pottery Typology and Chronology

• Iron Age pottery typology is the study of the forms, decorations, and manufacturing techniques of pottery from the Iron Age in the Levant (1200-586 BCE)
• The development of a refined pottery typology has enabled archaeologists to establish a more precise chronology for the Iron Age and to trace changes in material culture over time
• Differences in pottery styles between the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah have also been identified, providing evidence for the distinct cultural and political identities of these two kingdoms

Four-Room House and Israelite Daily Life

• The four-room house is a distinctive architectural style that emerged in the Levant during the Iron Age, characterized by a long central space flanked by three parallel rooms
• This house type is commonly associated with Israelite settlements and is believed to reflect the social organization and daily life of the ancient Israelites
• The widespread distribution of the four-room house throughout the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah provides evidence for a shared cultural identity and way of life among the Israelite population
• Examples of well-preserved four-room houses have been excavated at sites such as Tel Beersheba and Tel Hazor, offering insights into household activities, storage practices, and family structure in ancient Israel