🕯️Archaeology of the Holy Land Unit 9 – Islamic Period and Umayyad Caliphate

Historical Context

• The Islamic Period in the Holy Land began with the rise of Islam in the 7th century CE and lasted until the Ottoman Empire's decline in the early 20th century
• Prior to the rise of Islam, the Holy Land was under the control of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)
• The region experienced political instability and religious tensions between various Christian sects and Jewish communities
• The Sasanian Empire (Persian Empire) briefly conquered parts of the Holy Land in the early 7th century before being defeated by the Byzantines
• The Arab tribes in the Arabian Peninsula were largely polytheistic, with some Jewish and Christian influences
• The socio-economic conditions in the Arabian Peninsula were characterized by tribal rivalries and trade networks (Incense Route)

Rise of Islam

• Islam emerged in the early 7th century CE in Mecca, a city in the Arabian Peninsula
• The Prophet Muhammad, born in Mecca around 570 CE, received divine revelations that formed the basis of Islamic teachings
  • These revelations were later compiled into the Quran, the holy book of Islam
• Muhammad's teachings emphasized monotheism, social justice, and the submission to the will of Allah (God)
• Faced with opposition from the Meccan elite, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in 622 CE (Hijra)
  • The Hijra marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar
• In Medina, Muhammad established the first Islamic state and united various Arab tribes under the banner of Islam
• After Muhammad's death in 632 CE, his companions (Rashidun Caliphs) led the rapid expansion of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula

Establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate

• The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE) was the first hereditary Islamic dynasty, succeeding the Rashidun Caliphate
• Muawiyah I, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty, moved the capital from Medina to Damascus, Syria
• Under Umayyad rule, the Islamic empire expanded rapidly, conquering vast territories in the Middle East, North Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus)
• The Umayyads introduced a centralized administrative system and adopted Byzantine and Sasanian bureaucratic practices
  • They minted standardized coins (dinars and dirhams) to facilitate trade and tax collection
• The Umayyad period witnessed the development of a distinct Islamic art and architecture, blending local traditions with Islamic influences
• The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, built during the reign of Abd al-Malik (685-705 CE), became a symbol of Islamic presence in the Holy Land

Key Archaeological Sites

• Jerusalem: The Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque are significant Islamic monuments built on the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif)
• Caesarea Maritima: The Umayyad period saw the reuse and adaptation of the Roman-Byzantine port city for Islamic purposes
• Ramla: Established as the capital of Jund Filastin (military district of Palestine) in the 8th century CE, Ramla features Umayyad-era mosques and palaces
• Khirbat al-Mafjar: An Umayyad desert palace near Jericho, known for its elaborate mosaics and stucco decorations
• Tiberias: An important Islamic center of learning during the Umayyad period, with a significant mosque and palace complex
• Bet Shean (Baysan): The Umayyad period witnessed the transformation of the Byzantine city into an Islamic settlement with a mosque and commercial structures

Material Culture and Artifacts

• Ceramics: The Umayyad period saw the development of new ceramic types and glazing techniques, such as the use of lead glaze and polychrome decoration
  • Examples include the famous "desert castles" pottery, characterized by its intricate designs and vibrant colors
• Coins: Umayyad coins, minted in gold (dinars), silver (dirhams), and copper (fulus), provide valuable information about the dynasty's political and economic history
  • The coins often featured Arabic inscriptions and Islamic symbolism, such as the shahada (declaration of faith)
• Textiles: Umayyad textiles, particularly silk and wool, showcased advanced weaving techniques and intricate designs
  • Tiraz fabrics, inscribed with the name of the ruler or a blessing, were produced in state-sponsored workshops
• Glassware: Umayyad glassmakers continued the traditions of Byzantine and Sasanian glassmaking, creating delicate vessels and lamps
  • The use of glass mosaics in architectural decoration became more prevalent during this period
• Metalwork: Umayyad metalworkers produced intricate bronze and silver objects, such as ewers, incense burners, and mirrors
  • These objects often featured Arabic inscriptions and vegetal or geometric motifs

Architecture and Urban Planning

• Mosques: The Umayyad period witnessed the construction of grand congregational mosques (jamia) in major cities, such as the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem
  • These mosques often incorporated elements from pre-Islamic architectural traditions, such as the use of mosaics and the adaptation of Byzantine and Sasanian building techniques
• Palaces: Umayyad rulers built lavish desert palaces, such as Qasr Amra and Khirbat al-Mafjar, which served as retreats and hunting lodges
  • These palaces featured elaborate decorative programs, including frescoes, mosaics, and carved stucco
• Urban planning: The Umayyads continued the Byzantine and Sasanian traditions of urban planning, with cities organized around a central mosque and marketplace (suq)
  • They also introduced new urban elements, such as the minaret and the public bath (hammam)
• Fortifications: The Umayyads built and maintained fortifications to protect their territories and trade routes
  • Examples include the Umayyad-era walls and towers of Jerusalem and the fortified city of Anjar in Lebanon

Religious and Cultural Developments

• Islamization: The Umayyad period saw the gradual Islamization of the conquered territories, with the spread of Islamic beliefs, practices, and legal systems (sharia)
  • However, the Umayyads generally allowed religious freedom for non-Muslims (dhimmis), such as Christians and Jews, who paid a special tax (jizya)
• Arabic language: The Umayyads promoted the use of Arabic as the language of administration and religious scholarship
  • This led to the development of Arabic grammar, lexicography, and calligraphy
• Islamic sciences: The Umayyad period witnessed the early development of Islamic sciences, such as Quranic exegesis (tafsir), hadith studies, and Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh)
  • Scholars such as Al-Zuhri and Malik ibn Anas made significant contributions to these fields
• Cultural exchange: The Umayyad Caliphate facilitated cultural exchange between the Islamic world and neighboring civilizations, such as the Byzantine Empire and the Indian subcontinent
  • This exchange influenced art, architecture, science, and literature in the Islamic world and beyond

Legacy and Influence

• Political legacy: The Umayyad Caliphate laid the foundations for the Islamic empire and established the principle of dynastic rule in Islamic history
  • However, the Umayyads faced criticism for their perceived worldliness and favoritism towards Arab Muslims
• Artistic legacy: Umayyad art and architecture had a lasting impact on the development of Islamic art, influencing later dynasties such as the Abbasids and the Fatimids
  • The Dome of the Rock remains an iconic symbol of Islamic architecture and a testament to Umayyad artistic achievements
• Religious legacy: The Umayyad period witnessed the codification of Islamic beliefs and practices, setting the stage for the development of Islamic theology and law
  • However, the Umayyads also faced opposition from various religious and political groups, such as the Kharijites and the Shiites
• Cultural legacy: The Umayyad Caliphate facilitated the spread of Islamic culture and the Arabic language across vast territories, leaving a lasting impact on the cultural landscapes of the Middle East, North Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula
  • The Umayyad period also saw the early development of Islamic education, with the establishment of mosques as centers of learning and the emergence of religious scholars (ulama)