9.1 Islamic conquest and early Islamic period

The Islamic conquest reshaped the Holy Land, bringing new rulers, culture, and architecture. The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates expanded rapidly, establishing military districts like Jund Filastin and spreading Arabic language and Islam throughout the region.

Islamic rule transformed the landscape with iconic structures like the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Non-Muslims were granted protected status as dhimmis, while Jerusalem's significance in Islam grew as a pilgrimage site and symbol of Islamic unity.

Early Islamic Caliphates

Expansion and Governance of the Early Caliphates

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• Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 CE) was the first caliphate established following the death of the Prophet Muhammad, governed by his successors (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali) who rapidly expanded the Islamic empire through military conquests
• Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE) succeeded the Rashidun Caliphate, ruled by the Umayyad dynasty based in Damascus, continued the expansion of Islamic rule across North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and into Central Asia
• Jund Filastin was one of the military and administrative districts established by the Umayyad Caliphate in the region of Palestine, with its capital in Ramla, serving as a center of Islamic rule and culture in the area

Cultural and Religious Transformations under Islamic Rule

• Arabization was the process by which Arabic language and culture spread throughout the conquered territories, becoming the lingua franca and dominant cultural influence in the Islamic world
• Islamization refers to the gradual conversion of local populations to Islam, facilitated by factors such as the appeal of Islamic egalitarianism, the social and economic benefits of conversion, and the efforts of Islamic scholars and missionaries
• The early Islamic caliphates oversaw a period of significant cultural and religious transformation, as the conquered territories adapted to Islamic rule and the influence of Arabic language and culture

Islamic Architecture

Religious Structures and Their Significance

• Dome of the Rock, an iconic Islamic shrine in Jerusalem, was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE on the site of the Temple Mount, revered as the location of Muhammad's Night Journey and Ascension (Qubbat al-Sakhra)
• Al-Aqsa Mosque, located adjacent to the Dome of the Rock, is one of the oldest and most significant mosques in Islam, serving as a major pilgrimage site and a symbol of Islamic presence in Jerusalem (Masjid al-Aqsa)
• Mihrabs are niches in the wall of a mosque that indicate the direction of prayer towards Mecca (qibla), serving as a focal point for worshippers and a symbol of Islamic faith and unity

Architectural Features and Innovations

• Minarets are tall towers attached to mosques, used for the Muslim call to prayer (adhan) and as a visible symbol of Islamic presence in a city or town
• Islamic architecture during the early caliphates was characterized by the adaptation of local building traditions and the development of distinctive features such as the pointed arch, the dome, and the use of geometric and calligraphic ornamentation
• The Umayyad Caliphate, in particular, was known for its grand architectural projects, such as the Great Mosque of Damascus and the desert palaces of Qasr al-Hayr and Khirbat al-Mafjar, which showcased the wealth and power of the Islamic empire

Non-Muslims under Islamic Rule

Legal Status and Protections for Non-Muslims

• Dhimmi was the legal status accorded to non-Muslims (primarily Jews and Christians) living under Islamic rule, which granted them protection of life, property, and religious freedom in exchange for payment of a special tax and acceptance of certain social and legal restrictions
• Jizya tax was a per capita tax levied on non-Muslim adult males living under Islamic rule as part of their dhimmi status, which exempted them from military service and guaranteed their protection and religious freedom
• "Umar's Assurance" was a pact between the second Rashidun Caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab, and the Christians of Jerusalem, guaranteeing their safety, property, and religious freedom upon the Islamic conquest of the city in 637 CE

Jerusalem's Significance in Islam

• Jerusalem holds a special place in Islamic tradition, revered as the site of Muhammad's Night Journey and Ascension (Isra and Mi'raj) and the location of the Al-Aqsa Mosque, the third holiest site in Islam after Mecca and Medina
• The Islamic conquest of Jerusalem in 637 CE and the construction of the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque solidified the city's importance in Islamic history and religious practice
• Under Islamic rule, Jerusalem became a major center of pilgrimage and scholarship, attracting Muslim scholars and worshippers from across the Islamic world and serving as a symbol of Islamic unity and religious tolerance