9.3 Changes in material culture and religious practices

The Islamic Period and Umayyad Caliphate brought major shifts in material culture and religious practices. Mosques became central to Islamic architecture, featuring distinct elements like mihrabs and minarets. The Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque emerged as significant religious sites.

Islamic art flourished, with advancements in pottery, glassmaking, textiles, and decorative arts. The Umayyad Caliphate expanded Islamic territory and developed centralized administration. Non-Muslim communities lived as dhimmis, while gradual conversion and Arabization processes reshaped society.

Islamic Religious Architecture

Mosque Design and Components

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• Mosque architecture developed distinct features and elements during the early Islamic period
• Mihrab is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the qibla, the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and hence the direction that Muslims should face when praying
• Minbar is a pulpit in the mosque where the imam (prayer leader) stands to deliver sermons (khutbah)
• Mosques often incorporated a courtyard (sahn) for ablutions and prayer overflow, minarets for the call to prayer (adhan), and a dome over the prayer hall

Significant Early Islamic Religious Sites

• Dome of the Rock is an Islamic shrine located on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, built by Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE
  • Oldest extant Islamic monument and a masterpiece of Islamic architecture
  • Features a gold-plated dome, elaborate mosaics, and octagonal plan
• Al-Aqsa Mosque is located on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, considered the third-holiest site in Islam after Mecca and Medina
  • Originally built in 705 CE and has undergone several renovations and reconstructions
  • Serves as a congregational mosque for Friday prayers and can accommodate over 5,000 worshippers

Islamic Art and Crafts

Pottery and Glassmaking

• Islamic pottery flourished during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, with centers of production in Iraq, Egypt, and Iran
  • Techniques included glazing, slip-painting, and luster-painting
  • Styles ranged from simple geometric designs to elaborate figural and calligraphic motifs
• Glass production reached new heights of sophistication and artistry in the Islamic world
  • Techniques included glass-blowing, cutting, engraving, and enameling
  • Products included mosque lamps, perfume bottles, and decorative vessels

Textiles and Decorative Arts

• Textile industry thrived under Islamic rule, with centers of production in Iran, Iraq, Egypt, and Spain
  • Techniques included silk weaving, tapestry, and embroidery
  • Textiles featured geometric, floral, and calligraphic designs, often with symbolic meanings
• Other decorative arts flourished, such as metalwork (bronze, silver, and gold), woodwork, and ivory carving
  • Objects ranged from practical items (bowls, plates, and furniture) to luxury goods (jewelry, mirrors, and chess sets)
  • Decorative motifs often included Arabic calligraphy, geometric patterns, and stylized plant and animal forms

Islamic Governance and Society

Umayyad Caliphate and Administration

• Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE) was the first hereditary dynasty in Islamic history, ruling from Damascus
  • Expanded Islamic territory to include North Africa, Spain, and Central Asia
  • Developed a centralized administrative system, with a professional army and bureaucracy
• Islamic coinage was introduced under the Umayyads, replacing Byzantine and Sasanian coins
  • Early Islamic coins featured Arabic inscriptions and monotheistic messages
  • Coins served as a means of political and religious propaganda, as well as facilitating trade and taxation
• Arabic script became the official script of the Islamic state, replacing Greek, Persian, and Coptic in administrative and literary contexts
  • Development of a distinctive Arabic calligraphic tradition, which adorned buildings, textiles, and manuscripts
  • Spread of Arabic language and script facilitated cultural and intellectual exchange across the Islamic world

Non-Muslim Communities and Conversion

• Dhimmi refers to non-Muslim subjects of the Islamic state, primarily Christians and Jews, who were granted protected status in exchange for paying a special tax (jizya)
  • Dhimmis were allowed to practice their religion, maintain their own courts and institutions, and participate in economic life
  • Status of dhimmis varied across time and place, with periods of tolerance and persecution
• Jizya was a per capita tax levied on non-Muslim adult males as a form of tribute and protection
  • Jizya was one of the main sources of revenue for the Islamic state, along with land tax (kharaj) and booty from conquests
  • Payment of jizya symbolized submission to Islamic rule and exemption from military service
• Conversion to Islam occurred gradually and unevenly across the Islamic world, with various incentives and disincentives
  • Conversion offered social, economic, and political advantages, such as exemption from jizya, access to government positions, and integration into the Muslim community
  • Some Christian and Jewish communities resisted conversion and maintained their distinct identities, while others assimilated or migrated to other regions
• Arabization refers to the process of linguistic and cultural assimilation of non-Arab populations in the Islamic world
  • Spread of Arabic language through migration, intermarriage, education, and administration
  • Adoption of Arab dress, names, and customs by local populations, particularly in urban centers
  • Arabization did not necessarily entail conversion to Islam, as some Christian and Jewish communities retained their religion while adopting Arabic language and culture