8.3 Marine resource exploitation

Marine resource exploitation has been crucial for coastal communities throughout history. From fish and shellfish to marine mammals, these resources have provided food, materials, and economic opportunities for generations.

Specialized harvesting techniques like fish weirs and shellfish gardens showcase the deep knowledge coastal societies have developed. These practices, along with evolving technologies for fishing and transportation, have shaped how humans interact with marine environments over time.

Marine Resources for Coastal Communities

Diverse Range of Exploited Resources

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• Coastal and island communities have historically relied on a wide variety of marine resources for subsistence, including fish (cod, tuna, salmon), shellfish (clams, oysters, mussels), and marine mammals (seals, whales, sea otters)
• The specific marine resources exploited by a community depend on factors such as geographic location, available technology, cultural preferences, and seasonal availability
• Fish and shellfish have been important staples in the diets of many coastal and island societies, providing essential nutrients such as protein, omega-3 fatty acids, and various micronutrients
• Marine mammals have been hunted for their meat, blubber, and other body parts, which have been used for food, fuel, clothing, and tools

Specialized Harvesting Techniques

• Some coastal and island communities have developed specialized techniques for harvesting specific marine resources
  • Fish weirs are used to trap fish in tidal areas or river mouths, allowing for efficient harvesting of large quantities of fish
  • Shellfish gardens involve the intentional cultivation of shellfish beds through the manipulation of substrate, water flow, and other environmental factors
  • Cooperative hunting strategies for marine mammals, such as the use of multiple boats and hunters to herd and capture prey, have been employed by some coastal and island societies
• These specialized techniques reflect the deep knowledge and understanding of marine ecosystems held by coastal and island communities, and their ability to adapt their harvesting practices to specific ecological contexts

Technologies for Marine Resource Procurement

Fishing Gear and Techniques

• Coastal and island communities have developed a range of technologies and strategies for procuring marine resources, which have evolved over time in response to changing environmental conditions, resource availability, and cultural practices
• Fishing gear has included a variety of tools such as hooks, lines, nets, traps, and harpoons, each designed for targeting specific types of fish or marine animals
  • Hook and line fishing has been used for catching individual fish, while nets and traps have been employed for capturing larger quantities of fish or shellfish
  • Harpoons and lances have been used for hunting marine mammals, often from boats or shore-based platforms
• The development and adoption of new fishing technologies and strategies have often been driven by factors such as population growth, resource depletion, and changing economic or social conditions

Boats and Maritime Transportation

• Boats have played a crucial role in accessing offshore fishing grounds and hunting areas, and have ranged from simple dugout canoes to complex, multi-person vessels with specialized features for fishing and transportation
  • Dugout canoes, made from hollowed-out tree trunks, have been used by many coastal and island communities for nearshore fishing and transportation
  • More complex vessels, such as outrigger canoes and plank-built boats, have been developed for longer-distance voyages and offshore fishing expeditions
• The design and construction of boats have been adapted to the specific environmental conditions and resource procurement needs of different coastal and island communities

Processing and Preservation Techniques

• Processing techniques have been developed to preserve and store marine resources for later consumption or trade, including drying, salting, smoking, and fermentation
  • Drying involves the removal of moisture from fish or other marine resources through exposure to sun and wind, which inhibits spoilage and allows for long-term storage
  • Salting, often in combination with drying, is used to preserve fish and other marine resources by drawing out moisture and creating an inhospitable environment for bacteria
  • Smoking involves exposing fish or other marine resources to smoke from burning wood or other materials, which imparts flavor and helps to preserve the food
  • Fermentation, such as the production of fish sauce or shrimp paste, involves the controlled decomposition of marine resources by bacteria, resulting in a preserved and flavorful product
• These techniques have allowed coastal and island communities to extend the shelf life of marine resources and create value-added products for exchange

Sustainability of Marine Resource Exploitation

Overfishing and Resource Depletion

• The sustainability of marine resource exploitation practices has varied widely across different coastal and island communities and time periods, with some practices leading to long-term resource depletion and ecosystem degradation
• Overfishing has been a major concern in many coastal and island regions, leading to the decline or collapse of important fish stocks and associated ecological impacts
  • Factors contributing to overfishing include the use of increasingly efficient fishing technologies, growing human populations, and the expansion of commercial fishing operations
  • The depletion of key fish species can have cascading effects on marine food webs, altering the structure and function of entire ecosystems
• The exploitation of marine mammals has also had significant impacts on their populations and ecosystems, with some species being driven to the brink of extinction by historical hunting practices
  • The hunting of whales, for example, led to the near-extinction of several species, such as the North Atlantic right whale and the gray whale, before international conservation efforts were implemented

Destructive Fishing Practices and Habitat Degradation

• Destructive fishing practices, such as the use of dynamite or cyanide, have caused direct damage to coral reefs and other sensitive marine habitats
  • Dynamite fishing involves the use of explosives to stun or kill fish, which can shatter coral reefs and other benthic habitats
  • Cyanide fishing involves the use of toxic chemicals to stun fish for collection in the live reef food fish trade, which can poison and kill coral polyps and other reef organisms
• Other practices, such as bottom trawling and dredging, can physically damage or destroy seafloor habitats, reducing their complexity and productivity

Sustainable Management Strategies

• The sustainability of marine resource exploitation can be enhanced through the adoption of responsible fishing practices, such as the use of selective fishing gear, the establishment of marine protected areas, and the implementation of catch limits and other management measures
  • Selective fishing gear, such as circle hooks and escape gaps in traps, can reduce bycatch and minimize the capture of non-target species
  • Marine protected areas, which restrict or prohibit fishing and other extractive activities, can provide refugia for marine species and support the recovery of depleted populations
  • Catch limits and quotas can help to ensure that fishing pressure does not exceed the reproductive capacity of target species
• Traditional marine resource management systems, such as customary tenure arrangements and taboos, have played important roles in promoting sustainable resource use in some coastal and island communities
  • Customary tenure systems often involve the allocation of fishing rights and responsibilities among different clans, families, or individuals, which can create incentives for stewardship and sustainable use
  • Taboos, such as temporary or permanent prohibitions on fishing in certain areas or for certain species, can allow for the recovery of depleted populations and the maintenance of ecosystem health

Social and Economic Significance of Marine Resources

Cultural Identity and Livelihood Strategies

• Marine resources have played a central role in the social and economic lives of many coastal and island communities, shaping their cultural identities, livelihood strategies, and interactions with other societies
• The harvesting, processing, and distribution of marine resources have often been organized around kinship-based or community-level systems of labor and resource sharing
  • In many coastal and island societies, fishing and marine resource harvesting are important sources of livelihood, providing income, food, and other essential resources
  • The organization of labor and resource sharing around marine resource use can reinforce social bonds and cultural identities within communities

Trade and Exchange Networks

• Marine resources have been important items of trade and exchange, both within and between coastal and island communities
  • The exchange of marine resources has facilitated the development of regional trade networks, linking coastal and island communities with inland societies and providing access to a wider range of goods and resources
  • Some marine resources, such as shells and other decorative items, have held special cultural or symbolic value and have been used as currency or prestige goods in exchange systems
• The economic value of marine resources has also made them a focus of competition and conflict between different groups, both within and between societies
  • The control of access to valuable marine resources, such as productive fishing grounds or trading ports, has been a source of political and economic power in many coastal and island societies

Cultural Practices and Belief Systems

• The social and economic significance of marine resources has often been reflected in the cultural practices and belief systems of coastal and island communities
  • Marine motifs, such as fish, shells, and boats, are commonly featured in the art, mythology, and ritual practices of coastal and island societies, reflecting the centrality of the sea in their cultural identities
  • Specialized roles and institutions, such as fishermen's guilds, marine tenure systems, and navigation schools, have developed in many coastal and island communities to manage and transmit knowledge about marine resource use
• The cultural significance of marine resources can also be seen in the way that coastal and island communities have adapted their social and economic practices to the rhythms and cycles of the sea, such as the timing of fishing seasons, the organization of trade voyages, and the performance of ritual ceremonies