2.6 Polynesian societies

Polynesian societies emerged from the Austronesian expansion, settling the vast Pacific triangle. Their sophisticated navigation techniques, using stars and ocean swells, allowed for extensive exploration and settlement across remote islands.

Polynesian cultures developed complex social structures, with hierarchical chiefdoms and kinship-based organization. Their material culture, including adzes, fishhooks, and tapa cloth, reflected adaptation to island environments and specialized technologies.

Origins of Polynesian societies

• Polynesian societies emerged as a result of the Austronesian expansion and settlement of the Polynesian triangle, which includes Hawaii, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and Aotearoa (New Zealand)
• The origins of Polynesian societies are crucial to understanding their cultural development and the impact of European exploration on these societies

Austronesian expansion

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• The Austronesian expansion began around 3000 BCE from Taiwan and spread throughout Southeast Asia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia
• This expansion was facilitated by advanced maritime technology, including outrigger canoes and navigational skills
• Austronesian languages, which include Polynesian languages, are spoken by over 300 million people today, reflecting the extent of this expansion

Settlement of Polynesian triangle

• The settlement of the Polynesian triangle occurred in stages, with the initial settlement of Western Polynesia (Tonga and Samoa) around 1000 BCE
• Eastern Polynesia, including the Society Islands, Marquesas, and Hawaii, was settled between 300 CE and 1000 CE
• The settlement of Rapa Nui and Aotearoa occurred later, around 1200 CE and 1300 CE, respectively

Polynesian navigation techniques

• Polynesian navigation techniques were highly sophisticated and allowed for long-distance voyages across the Pacific Ocean
• These techniques differed significantly from European navigation methods and were crucial to the success of Polynesian settlement and trade

Wayfinding vs European navigation

• Polynesian wayfinding relied on a deep understanding of the environment, including stars, winds, and ocean swells, rather than instruments like compasses and charts
• European navigation, in contrast, relied heavily on technological aids like the magnetic compass, astrolabe, and later, the sextant and chronometer
• Wayfinding was passed down through oral traditions and required extensive training, while European navigation was based on written charts and calculations

Celestial navigation

• Polynesian navigators used the stars to determine their position and direction of travel
• The rising and setting points of stars were used to maintain a course, with specific stars associated with different islands and routes
• The Polynesian star compass divided the horizon into 32 points, each associated with a specific star or constellation

Ocean swell patterns

• Polynesian navigators also used ocean swell patterns to determine their position and direction of travel
• Swells are generated by distant storms and travel great distances across the ocean, maintaining a consistent direction
• By reading the direction, size, and frequency of swells, navigators could determine their location relative to islands and other landmarks

Polynesian social structures

• Polynesian social structures were hierarchical and based on kinship and lineage
• These structures varied between different Polynesian societies but shared common elements

Hierarchical chiefdoms

• Most Polynesian societies were organized into hierarchical chiefdoms, with a paramount chief (ariki) at the top of the social hierarchy
• Chiefs held political, economic, and religious authority and were believed to have divine ancestry
• The power of chiefs was based on their ability to control resources, including land, labor, and tribute from subordinate chiefs and commoners

Kinship and lineage

• Kinship and lineage were the foundation of Polynesian social organization
• Descent was typically traced through the male line (patrilineality), although some societies had matrilineal descent
• Extended families (whanau) and larger kinship groups (hapu) formed the basis of social and economic organization

Gender roles in society

• Gender roles in Polynesian societies were often complementary, with men and women having distinct but equally important roles
• Men typically held positions of political and religious authority, while women were responsible for domestic tasks and child-rearing
• In some societies, such as Hawaii, women could also hold positions of power and had significant influence in decision-making

Polynesian material culture

• Polynesian material culture reflects the adaptation of Polynesian societies to their island environments and the development of specialized technologies

Adze production and use

• Adzes were a crucial tool in Polynesian societies, used for woodworking, canoe building, and other tasks
• Adzes were made from basalt, a volcanic rock found on many Polynesian islands
  • The process of making an adze involved selecting suitable basalt, roughing out the shape, and grinding and polishing the blade
  • Different types of adzes were used for different tasks, such as felling trees, hollowing out canoes, and carving wooden objects
• The production and use of adzes was a specialized skill, with expert adze makers holding high status in Polynesian societies

Fishhook technology

• Fishing was a vital part of Polynesian subsistence, and fishhook technology was highly developed
• Fishhooks were made from a variety of materials, including bone, shell, and stone
  • One-piece fishhooks were carved from a single piece of material, while composite fishhooks were made from multiple pieces lashed together
  • Different types of fishhooks were used for different species of fish and fishing techniques (trolling, bottom-fishing)
• The manufacture of fishhooks was a specialized skill, with expert fishhook makers using a range of tools and techniques to produce highly effective hooks

Tapa cloth production

• Tapa cloth, made from the inner bark of the paper mulberry tree, was a versatile material used for clothing, bedding, and ceremonial purposes
• The production of tapa cloth was a multi-step process that involved harvesting the bark, soaking it, beating it into a thin sheet, and decorating it with painted or printed designs
  • The beating process, using wooden mallets, required skill and strength to produce even, high-quality cloth
  • The designs used to decorate tapa cloth often had symbolic meanings and were associated with particular islands, families, or events
• Tapa cloth production was typically the work of women and was an important part of the domestic economy in Polynesian societies

Polynesian subsistence strategies

• Polynesian subsistence strategies were adapted to the island environments of the Pacific and made use of a range of techniques and resources

Horticulture and agriculture

• Horticulture and agriculture were the foundation of Polynesian subsistence, with a range of crops cultivated in different environments
• Staple crops included taro, yams, sweet potatoes, and breadfruit, which were grown in irrigated or dryland fields
  • Irrigation systems, such as the loi (taro pond fields) of Hawaii, allowed for intensive cultivation of wetland crops
  • Dryland crops, such as sweet potatoes, were grown in mounds or ridges to conserve moisture and prevent erosion
• Other crops, such as bananas, coconuts, and sugarcane, provided important supplements to the Polynesian diet

Fishing techniques

• Fishing was a crucial part of Polynesian subsistence, providing a reliable source of protein
• A range of fishing techniques were used, including hook-and-line, netting, spearing, and trapping
  • Hook-and-line fishing, using shell, bone, or stone fishhooks, was used for both deep-sea and reef fishing
  • Netting, using woven nets of various sizes, was used to catch schooling fish and smaller reef fish
  • Spearing, using multi-pronged spears or harpoons, was used for larger fish and marine mammals
• The construction and use of fishing canoes, often with outriggers for stability, allowed Polynesians to fish in deeper waters and travel between islands

Domesticated animals

• Domesticated animals, particularly pigs, chickens, and dogs, were important in Polynesian subsistence and culture
• Pigs were the most important domesticated animal, providing meat for food and tusks for tools and ornaments
  • Pigs were often raised in free-range conditions, foraging for food in fallow fields and forests
  • The size and number of pigs owned by a family or chief was a marker of wealth and status
• Chickens were also raised for meat and eggs, while dogs were used for hunting and as a food source in some societies

Polynesian religious practices

• Polynesian religious practices were deeply integrated into all aspects of life and were based on a complex system of beliefs and rituals

Mana and tapu concepts

• Mana and tapu were central concepts in Polynesian religion, governing the relationships between people, gods, and the natural world
• Mana was a supernatural power or essence that could be possessed by people, objects, or places
  • Chiefs and other high-ranking individuals were believed to have more mana than commoners
  • Mana could be increased through acts of bravery, skill, or generosity, and could be lost through cowardice, incompetence, or stinginess
• Tapu (taboo) was a system of prohibitions and restrictions that protected the mana of people, objects, and places
  • Tapu could be placed on people (chiefs, priests), objects (temples, sacred artifacts), or places (sacred groves, burial grounds)
  • Violating a tapu could result in divine punishment, social ostracism, or even death

Ancestor worship

• Ancestor worship was a key element of Polynesian religion, with deceased ancestors believed to have an active role in the lives of their descendants
• Ancestors were believed to become deified after death and could be called upon for guidance, protection, and favor
  • Offerings of food, drink, and valuable objects were made to ancestors at family shrines or community temples
  • The bones of high-ranking ancestors were often preserved and treated as sacred objects, imbued with mana
• The veneration of ancestors reinforced the importance of genealogy and lineage in Polynesian societies

Monumental architecture

• Monumental architecture, such as temples (marae), burial mounds, and ceremonial platforms, was a prominent feature of Polynesian religious practice
• Marae were sacred spaces used for religious ceremonies, political meetings, and social gatherings
  • Marae typically consisted of a rectangular courtyard, surrounded by a low stone wall, with a raised platform (ahu) at one end
  • The ahu was the most sacred part of the marae, where offerings were made to the gods and ancestors
• Other monumental structures, such as the moai statues of Rapa Nui and the heiau temples of Hawaii, served as physical manifestations of the power and prestige of chiefs and priests

Polynesian art and symbolism

• Polynesian art and symbolism were highly developed and played important roles in religious, social, and political life

Tattoo traditions

• Tattooing was a widespread practice in Polynesian societies, serving as a form of personal adornment, social marking, and spiritual protection
• Tattoo designs were often highly symbolic, representing an individual's genealogy, social status, and personal achievements
  • In some societies, such as the Marquesas, nearly the entire body could be covered in elaborate tattoo designs
  • The process of tattooing was a sacred ritual, performed by specialist tattoo artists using bone or shell chisels and pigments made from soot and plant dyes
• Tattoos were not only decorative but also served as a form of armor, both physically and spiritually, protecting the wearer from harm

Woodcarving styles

• Woodcarving was a highly developed art form in Polynesian societies, with a range of styles and motifs used for both functional and decorative objects
• Canoes, paddles, and other maritime objects were often elaborately carved with designs representing waves, fish, and other sea creatures
  • The prows of war canoes were often adorned with fierce-looking figures, intended to intimidate enemies and protect the crew
  • The handles of tools, such as adzes and fishhooks, were often carved with intricate geometric designs or stylized human figures
• Other carved objects, such as ceremonial bowls, drums, and figurines, were used in religious and social contexts and were often imbued with mana

Petroglyphs and rock art

• Petroglyphs and rock art were another important form of Polynesian artistic expression, found throughout the Pacific
• Petroglyphs were designs carved into rock surfaces, often depicting human figures, animals, and geometric patterns
  • Some petroglyphs were believed to have sacred or magical properties, such as the birdman petroglyphs of Rapa Nui
  • Other petroglyphs may have served as markers of territorial boundaries or as records of important events
• Rock art, which included painted designs as well as petroglyphs, was often associated with sacred sites and used in religious ceremonies

Contact with European explorers

• The contact between Polynesian societies and European explorers, beginning in the 16th century, had a profound impact on both cultures

Early encounters and exchanges

• The first recorded European contact with Polynesia was by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, who reached the Marquesas and Tuamotu islands in 1521
• Subsequent explorers, including the Dutch, British, and French, made contact with various Polynesian societies throughout the 17th and 18th centuries
  • These early encounters often involved the exchange of goods, with Europeans trading metal tools, cloth, and other manufactured items for food, water, and local products
  • Some encounters were peaceful, while others were marked by misunderstandings, violence, and the introduction of European diseases
• The journals and reports of European explorers provide valuable, though often biased, accounts of Polynesian societies at the time of contact

Introduction of new technologies

• European contact introduced a range of new technologies to Polynesian societies, some of which were readily adopted and adapted by Polynesians
• Metal tools, such as iron adzes, knives, and fishhooks, quickly replaced traditional stone and shell tools in many societies
  • Metal tools were more efficient and durable than their traditional counterparts, and their adoption led to changes in craftsmanship and production
  • The introduction of metal also had an impact on warfare, with metal weapons (clubs, spears) becoming more common
• Other introduced technologies, such as firearms and sailing ships, had more limited adoption but still had significant impacts on Polynesian societies

Impact on Polynesian societies

• The impact of European contact on Polynesian societies was complex and varied, with both positive and negative consequences
• The introduction of new crops and animals, such as potatoes, onions, and goats, diversified the Polynesian diet and provided new economic opportunities
  • However, the introduction of European diseases, such as smallpox and measles, had devastating effects on Polynesian populations, which had no natural immunity
  • The spread of disease, combined with the effects of warfare and social disruption, led to significant population declines in many Polynesian societies
• European contact also led to changes in Polynesian political and social structures, with some chiefs and societies benefiting from trade and alliance with Europeans while others were marginalized or displaced
  • The influence of European missionaries and colonial administrators further disrupted traditional Polynesian ways of life, leading to the suppression of indigenous religious practices and the imposition of new legal and educational systems
  • Despite these challenges, Polynesian societies have shown remarkable resilience and adaptability, with many aspects of traditional culture and identity persisting to the present day