🏛️Greek Art and Architecture – 330 to 30 BC Unit 2 – Greek Culture Spreads: New Artistic Centers

Key Concepts and Timeline

• Hellenistic period (323 BC - 30 BC) began after the death of Alexander the Great and ended with the Roman conquest of Egypt
• Spread of Greek culture and art throughout the Mediterranean region and beyond during this period
• Emergence of new artistic centers such as Alexandria, Pergamon, and Rhodes
• Increased cultural exchange and interaction between Greek and non-Greek populations
• Development of new artistic styles and techniques, such as the Baroque style and the use of dramatic lighting and shading
• Emphasis on realism, emotion, and individualism in art and sculpture
• Rise of portrait sculpture and the depiction of everyday life scenes
• Increased patronage of the arts by wealthy individuals and rulers

Major Historical Events and Context

• Alexander the Great's conquests (336 BC - 323 BC) laid the foundation for the spread of Greek culture
• Wars of the Diadochi (322 BC - 281 BC) led to the division of Alexander's empire among his generals
• Establishment of Hellenistic kingdoms such as the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the Near East, and the Antigonid dynasty in Macedon
• Rise of Rome as a major power in the Mediterranean region during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC
• Mithridatic Wars (88 BC - 63 BC) between Rome and the Hellenistic kingdom of Pontus
• Roman conquest of Greece (146 BC) and the gradual incorporation of Hellenistic kingdoms into the Roman Empire
• Cleopatra VII's reign (51 BC - 30 BC) as the last Hellenistic ruler of Egypt before its annexation by Rome

Artistic Centers and Their Significance

• Alexandria, Egypt: Major center of learning and the arts, famous for its library and museum
  • Ptolemaic patronage of the arts and sciences
  • Development of new artistic techniques and styles, such as the use of bold colors and intricate mosaics
• Pergamon: Capital of the Attalid dynasty, known for its monumental architecture and sculpture
  • Pergamon Altar, a masterpiece of Hellenistic art depicting the Gigantomachy
  • Pioneering use of dramatic poses and expressive faces in sculpture
• Rhodes: Important trading center and cultural hub, renowned for its colossal sculpture
  • Colossus of Rhodes, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
  • School of sculpture that emphasized realism and attention to detail
• Antioch: Capital of the Seleucid Empire, significant center of Hellenistic art and culture
  • Synthesis of Greek and Near Eastern artistic traditions
  • Production of high-quality mosaics and frescoes
• Athens: Continued to be an important artistic center, despite its declining political power
  • Neo-Attic style, which revived classical Greek artistic traditions
  • Production of high-quality pottery and sculpture

Influential Artists and Patrons

• Lysippos: Court sculptor of Alexander the Great, known for his naturalistic and expressive style
  • Apoxyomenos (The Scraper), a bronze sculpture depicting an athlete cleaning himself
  • Influence on the development of portrait sculpture and the depiction of movement
• Praxiteles: Athenian sculptor, famous for his graceful and sensual sculptures of gods and goddesses
  • Aphrodite of Knidos, the first life-sized female nude in Greek sculpture
  • Use of the S-curve pose and the introduction of a more human-like depiction of deities
• Chares of Lindos: Rhodian sculptor, creator of the Colossus of Rhodes
• Attalos I of Pergamon: King and patron of the arts, commissioned the Pergamon Altar and other monumental works
• Ptolemaic rulers: Patrons of the arts and sciences in Alexandria, supported the library and museum
  • Ptolemy I Soter, founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty
  • Ptolemy II Philadelphus, expanded the library and patronized scholars and artists
• Antiochus IV Epiphanes: Seleucid king, patron of the arts in Antioch and other cities
  • Commissioned the rebuilding of the Temple of Zeus in Athens (Olympieion)
  • Promoted the synthesis of Greek and Near Eastern artistic traditions

Stylistic Developments and Innovations

• Baroque style: Characterized by dramatic poses, expressive faces, and the use of light and shadow
  • Emphasized movement, emotion, and theatricality
  • Exemplified by the Pergamon Altar and the Laocoön group
• Realism: Increased attention to anatomical detail and the depiction of everyday life scenes
  • Portrait sculpture became more individualized and lifelike
  • Genre scenes, such as the Old Market Woman, depicted ordinary people and activities
• Use of new materials and techniques: Experimentation with colored marbles, bronze casting, and mosaic work
  • Polychrome sculpture, which incorporated different colors of marble or applied paint
  • Development of the opus vermiculatum mosaic technique, using tiny tesserae to create intricate designs
• Landscape and still-life painting: Emergence of new subjects in painting
  • Nile mosaic from Palestrina, depicting a panoramic view of the Nile River and its surroundings
  • Still-life mosaics, such as the Asarotos Oikos (Unswept Floor) mosaic from Pergamon
• Illusionism and trompe l'oeil: Creation of optical illusions and the appearance of three-dimensionality
  • Mastery of perspective and shading techniques
  • Exemplified by the Second Style wall paintings in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Notable Works and Monuments

• Nike of Samothrace: Hellenistic sculpture depicting the winged goddess of victory, known for its dynamic pose and flowing drapery
• Dying Gaul: Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic bronze sculpture, depicting a wounded Gallic warrior
  • Captures the moment of defeat and the warrior's noble acceptance of his fate
  • Reflects the Hellenistic interest in the depiction of strong emotions and non-Greek subjects
• Laocoön and His Sons: Hellenistic sculpture group depicting the Trojan priest Laocoön and his sons being attacked by serpents
  • Exemplifies the Baroque style with its dramatic composition and expressive faces
  • Discovered in Rome in 1506, influencing Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo
• Winged Victory of Myrina: Hellenistic terracotta statuette of Nike, the goddess of victory
  • Demonstrates the mastery of drapery and the capturing of movement in sculpture
  • Reflects the popularity of terracotta figurines as affordable art objects
• Pharos of Alexandria: Lighthouse built in the 3rd century BC, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
  • Symbol of Ptolemaic power and the importance of Alexandria as a center of trade and learning
  • Stood over 100 meters tall and used a complex system of mirrors to project light

Cultural and Social Impacts

• Spread of Greek language and education throughout the Hellenistic world
  • Koine Greek became the lingua franca, facilitating communication and cultural exchange
  • Establishment of gymnasia and libraries in Hellenistic cities, promoting Greek learning and culture
• Syncretism of Greek and local religious traditions
  • Identification of Greek gods with local deities (interpretatio graeca)
  • Emergence of new syncretic deities, such as Serapis in Ptolemaic Egypt
• Cosmopolitanism and cultural diversity in Hellenistic cities
  • Interaction and intermarriage between Greeks and non-Greeks
  • Incorporation of foreign elements into Greek art and culture (Orientalizing influence)
• Patronage and the rise of court culture
  • Hellenistic rulers as patrons of the arts and sciences, using cultural achievements to legitimize their rule
  • Development of court poetry, such as the works of Callimachus and Theocritus
• Increased social mobility and the emergence of a middle class
  • Opportunities for artists, scholars, and merchants in the growing Hellenistic cities
  • Erosion of traditional social hierarchies and the democratization of art and culture

Legacy and Influence on Later Art

• Transmission of Hellenistic art and culture to the Roman world
  • Roman adoption and adaptation of Greek artistic styles and techniques
  • Importance of Greek art as a model for Roman artists and patrons
• Rediscovery of Hellenistic art during the Renaissance
  • Influence of Hellenistic sculpture on artists such as Michelangelo and Bernini
  • Revival of interest in classical learning and the arts (Renaissance Humanism)
• Hellenistic art as a bridge between classical Greek and Roman art
  • Continuation and evolution of Greek artistic traditions
  • Incorporation of new subjects, styles, and techniques that influenced Roman art
• Enduring fascination with Hellenistic art and culture in modern times
  • Scholarly interest in the Hellenistic period and its artistic achievements
  • Influence on modern art movements, such as Neoclassicism and Romanticism
• Legacy of Hellenistic cities as centers of learning and cultural exchange
  • Role of Alexandria, Pergamon, and other cities in preserving and transmitting knowledge
  • Contribution to the development of Western art, science, and literature