2.2 Early innovations in sculpture and architecture

Early Greek sculptors and architects pushed the boundaries of their crafts. They mastered bronze casting, creating lifelike statues with intricate details. This allowed for more dynamic poses and larger-than-life figures, revolutionizing public art.

In architecture, subtle refinements enhanced the visual appeal of temples. Optical illusions, like curved stylobates and entasis in columns, created the illusion of perfect symmetry. These innovations showcased Greek artists' keen eye for aesthetics and technical skill.

Bronze Sculpture Innovations

Lost-wax casting technique

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• Lost-wax casting revolutionized bronze sculpture in ancient Greece
• Process involves creating a clay model, covering it in wax, then encasing it in a mold
• Molten bronze is poured into the mold, melting away the wax and filling the space
• Allows for highly detailed and complex sculptures to be created in bronze
• Enabled the production of life-size and larger bronze statues (Riace bronzes)

Advancements in bronze sculpture

• Bronze became the preferred medium for large-scale Greek sculpture
• Durability and strength of bronze allowed for more dynamic poses and intricate details
• Greek sculptors mastered the representation of human anatomy and movement in bronze
• Bronze statues were often used for public monuments and religious dedications
• Significant bronze sculptures include the Charioteer of Delphi and the Zeus or Poseidon of Artemision

Architectural Refinements

Refinements in the Doric order

• Doric order undergoes subtle changes to achieve a more harmonious and balanced appearance
• Columns become more slender and widely spaced, creating a lighter and more elegant look
• Echinus (curved element at the top of the column) becomes more shallow and refined
• Triglyph and metope frieze becomes more precisely proportioned and detailed

Developments in the Ionic order

• Ionic order, characterized by its volute capitals, evolves during the Classical period
• Proportions of the Ionic column become more slender and graceful
• Ionic frieze often features continuous sculptural reliefs, adding decorative richness
• Ionic order is frequently used in smaller temples and treasuries (Erechtheion)

Incorporation of entasis and optical corrections

• Entasis, a slight swelling in the middle of the column shaft, is introduced to counteract the optical illusion of concavity
• Optical corrections are employed to create the impression of straight lines and perfect symmetry
• Stylobate (floor of the temple) is slightly curved upwards at the center to prevent the appearance of sagging
• Columns at the corners are slightly thicker to compensate for the increased background light
• These refinements demonstrate the Greeks' attention to detail and understanding of visual perception

Iconic Architectural Examples

Temple of Zeus at Olympia

• One of the largest and most important temples in ancient Greece, built around 460 BCE
• Housed the colossal gold and ivory statue of Zeus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
• Designed in the Doric order, with six columns on the front and back and thirteen on the sides
• Pediments featured elaborate sculptural compositions depicting the Twelve Labors of Heracles and the chariot race between Pelops and Oenomaus

Parthenon and its sculptural frieze

• The Parthenon, dedicated to the goddess Athena, is the most iconic example of Classical Greek architecture
• Built entirely in the Doric order, with eight columns on the front and back and seventeen on the sides
• Continuous Ionic frieze running around the exterior of the cella, depicting the Panathenaic procession
• Pediments showcased monumental sculptures representing the birth of Athena and the contest between Athena and Poseidon for the patronage of Athens

Caryatids of the Erechtheion

• The Erechtheion, located on the Acropolis, is known for its unique architectural features
• South porch is supported by six female figures, known as the Caryatids, serving as columns
• Caryatids are sculpted in a contrapposto stance, with drapery clinging to their bodies, showcasing the skill of Greek sculptors
• The use of female figures as architectural support is a rare and striking feature in Greek architecture

Reconstruction of the Acropolis

• The Acropolis of Athens undergoes a major rebuilding program in the second half of the 5th century BCE
• Led by the statesman Pericles and the sculptor Phidias, the project aims to restore the glory of Athens after the Persian Wars
• The Parthenon, the Erechtheion, the Propylaea (monumental gateway), and the Temple of Athena Nike are all constructed as part of this reconstruction
• The rebuilt Acropolis becomes the symbol of Athens' cultural and political supremacy in the Greek world