🏺Greek Art and Architecture – 500 to 320 BC Unit 3 – Early Classical Greek Sculpture

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Early Classical period (480-450 BCE) marked a shift towards naturalism and idealism in Greek sculpture
• Contrapposto stance introduced to create a more natural, relaxed pose in standing figures
• Severe style characterized by stiff, rigid poses and emotionless expressions (Kritios Boy)
• Canon of proportions established ideal ratios and measurements for the human body
  • Polykleitos' Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) exemplified the canon of proportions
• Drapery became more naturalistic, clinging to the body and revealing underlying forms
• Chryselephantine sculpture combined gold and ivory to create luxurious, lifelike statues (Athena Parthenos)
• Ethos referred to the character or personality of a figure, conveyed through facial expressions and body language

Historical Context and Cultural Influences

• Early Classical period followed the Persian Wars, during which Athens emerged as a dominant cultural and political force
• Rebuilding of the Acropolis and Parthenon under Pericles' leadership showcased Athenian wealth and power
• Sculpture reflected the ideals of democracy, emphasizing the importance of the individual citizen
  • Portrayal of athletes and heroes celebrated human achievement and physical perfection
• Philosophical ideas of Plato and Aristotle influenced the pursuit of ideal beauty and proportion in art
• Religious beliefs and mythology continued to inspire sculptural themes and subjects
• Increasing trade and cultural exchange with other regions exposed Greek artists to new ideas and techniques

Major Artists and Works

• Myron known for his dynamic, naturalistic bronzes (Discobolus, Athena and Marsyas)
• Polykleitos developed the canon of proportions and created the Doryphoros, a paradigm of the ideal male form
  • Also sculpted the Diadumenos, a youth tying a victory ribbon around his head
• Phidias oversaw the sculptural program of the Parthenon and created the colossal chryselephantine statues of Athena Parthenos and Zeus at Olympia
• Paionios sculpted the Nike of Paionios, a windswept figure of Victory alighting on a base
• Alkamenes, a student of Phidias, created the Aphrodite of the Gardens and the Procne and Itys

Stylistic Characteristics and Techniques

• Increased naturalism in the representation of human anatomy, facial features, and drapery
• Contrapposto stance added a sense of movement and dynamism to standing figures
• Subtle asymmetry and weight shift created a more lifelike appearance
• Facial expressions became more individualized and expressive, conveying emotion and character
• Drapery rendered with greater detail and realism, often used to emphasize the body's contours
• Bronzes allowed for more fluid, dynamic poses due to the material's strength and flexibility
• Chryselephantine technique combined gold and ivory to create opulent, lifelike sculptures
• Continued use of the archaic smile in some early works, gradually replaced by more naturalistic expressions

Materials and Methods

• Marble remained the primary material for large-scale statuary and architectural sculpture
  • Pentelic marble from Athens and Parian marble from the Cyclades were highly prized for their quality and translucence
• Bronze casting techniques advanced, allowing for more complex poses and detailed features
  • Lost-wax method involved creating a wax model, covering it in clay, and melting the wax to create a hollow mold for the molten bronze
• Chryselephantine sculpture used gold sheets and ivory plates attached to a wooden core
  • Required intricate construction and precise fitting of the materials
• Polychromy, the use of color on sculpture, added realism and visual interest to marble works
  • Pigments, gilding, and inlaid materials like glass and precious stones were used to enhance details
• Sculptors used a variety of tools, including chisels, drills, rasps, and abrasives, to shape and refine their works

Themes and Symbolism

• Mythology and religion continued to be major sources of inspiration for sculptural themes
  • Gods, goddesses, and mythological figures were portrayed with idealized features and attributes
• Heroic nudity became more prevalent, symbolizing moral and physical perfection
  • Athletes, warriors, and mythological heroes were often depicted nude or semi-nude
• Portraits of individuals, such as statesmen and philosophers, began to emerge, emphasizing their character and achievements
• Architectural sculpture, such as the Parthenon frieze, depicted religious processions and civic events, promoting Athenian ideals and values
• Personifications of abstract concepts, like Victory (Nike) and Love (Eros), were represented in sculptural form
• Animals, both real and mythical, were incorporated into sculpture as symbols of power, wisdom, and other attributes

Impact on Later Art and Culture

• Early Classical sculpture set the foundation for the development of the Classical style in the High Classical period (450-400 BCE)
• Canon of proportions and contrapposto stance became enduring principles of Western art
  • Influenced artists in the Hellenistic period, ancient Rome, and the Renaissance
• Idealized portrayal of the human form shaped the Western concept of beauty and aesthetics
• Sculptural techniques and materials pioneered in the Early Classical period continued to be used and refined in later eras
• Surviving works, like the Parthenon marbles, have become iconic symbols of ancient Greek art and culture
  • Inspired neoclassical artists and architects in the 18th and 19th centuries
• Early Classical sculpture has been studied, admired, and imitated by artists and scholars for centuries, cementing its place in the canon of art history

Controversies and Debates

• Attribution of certain works to specific artists remains a subject of scholarly debate
  • Limited surviving evidence and conflicting ancient sources make definitive attributions challenging
• Reconstruction and restoration of fragmentary sculptures can be controversial, as it involves interpretation and speculation
• Removal and dispersal of sculptural works, such as the Parthenon marbles (Elgin marbles), have sparked debates about cultural heritage and repatriation
  • Arguments for and against returning works to their countries of origin continue to be discussed
• Interpretation of sculptural themes and symbolism can vary among scholars, depending on their cultural and historical perspectives
• Debates surrounding the original appearance of polychrome sculpture challenge long-held assumptions about the "whiteness" of ancient Greek art
  • Recent research suggests that many sculptures were originally painted in bright colors
• Questions of authenticity and dating arise when new works are discovered or when established attributions are challenged based on stylistic or technical analysis