🏺Greek Art and Architecture – 500 to 320 BC Unit 6 – Classical Sculpture: Parthenon & Pheidias

Historical Context

• Classical period of ancient Greek art and architecture (480-323 BCE) marked by idealized naturalism and harmonious proportions
• Athens emerged as a major cultural center following the Persian Wars (490-479 BCE)
• Pericles, Athenian statesman, initiated ambitious building projects (Parthenon, Propylaea, Erechtheion) during the Golden Age of Athens (460-430 BCE)
• Construction of the Parthenon began in 447 BCE, completed in 438 BCE
• Parthenon served as a temple dedicated to Athena Parthenos, the patron goddess of Athens
• Reflected Athenian wealth, power, and cultural achievements at the height of its empire
• Embodied the ideals of democracy, philosophy, and artistic excellence in ancient Greece

Key Figures and Their Influence

• Pericles, Athenian statesman, played a crucial role in the cultural and political development of Athens during the 5th century BCE
  • Initiated the Periclean building program, which included the construction of the Parthenon and other monumental structures on the Acropolis
  • Promoted the arts, literature, and philosophy, transforming Athens into the cultural center of the ancient world
• Pheidias, the most renowned sculptor of the Classical period, oversaw the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon
  • Collaborated with architects Ictinus and Callicrates in designing the Parthenon
  • Created the colossal chryselephantine (gold and ivory) statue of Athena Parthenos housed within the Parthenon
• Ictinus and Callicrates, architects responsible for the design and construction of the Parthenon
  • Worked closely with Pheidias to create a harmonious integration of architecture and sculpture
• Polykleitos, another influential sculptor of the Classical period, known for his treatise on the ideal proportions of the human body (Canon)
  • His works, such as the Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer), exemplified the principles of symmetria and contrapposto

The Parthenon: Architecture and Design

• The Parthenon is a Doric peripteral temple with Ionic architectural features
• Built entirely of Pentelic marble, renowned for its white color and fine grain
• Rectangular in plan, with a colonnaded portico of 8 columns on the east and west ends (octastyle) and 17 columns along the north and south sides
• Employed subtle architectural refinements to create an appearance of perfect symmetry and harmony
  • Entasis: slight convex curvature in the columns to counteract the optical illusion of concavity
  • Stylobate curvature: gentle upward curvature of the temple's base to prevent the appearance of sagging
• Consisted of three main parts: the pronaos (front porch), the naos (inner chamber housing the cult statue), and the opisthodomos (rear porch)
• Richly decorated with sculptural elements, including the pediments, metopes, and the Ionic frieze
• Pediments depicted the birth of Athena (east) and the contest between Athena and Poseidon for the patronage of Athens (west)
• Metopes showcased mythological battles (Centauromachy, Amazonomachy, Gigantomachy, and the Trojan War)
• Ionic frieze, a continuous band of relief sculpture, depicted the Panathenaic procession in honor of Athena

Pheidias: Life and Works

• Pheidias (c. 480-430 BCE), the most celebrated sculptor of the Classical period
• Born in Athens, trained under the sculptor Ageladas of Argos
• Appointed by Pericles to oversee the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon and other Periclean building projects
• Created the colossal chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos (c. 438 BCE), which stood approximately 11.5 meters (38 feet) tall inside the Parthenon
  • Adorned with gold, ivory, and precious stones
  • Depicted Athena standing, wearing a helmet, holding a Nike (goddess of victory) in her right hand and a shield in her left
• Sculpted the chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia (c. 435 BCE), considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
• Known for his mastery of the chryselephantine technique and his ability to convey a sense of majesty and divine grandeur in his sculptures
• Accused of embezzlement and impiety, possibly due to political rivalries, and died in exile in Elis (c. 430 BCE)

Sculptural Techniques and Materials

• Classical Greek sculptors primarily worked with marble (Parian, Pentelic, and Naxian) and bronze
• Marble sculptures were created using the subtractive method, gradually removing material to reveal the desired form
  • Tools used included chisels, drills, rasps, and abrasives (pumice and emery)
  • Finished sculptures were often polished with wax or painted in bright colors (polychromy)
• Bronze sculptures were created using the lost-wax (cire perdue) casting method
  • A clay model was covered in wax, then encased in a clay mold
  • Molten bronze was poured into the mold, melting the wax and filling the space
  • The clay mold was broken to reveal the bronze sculpture, which was then polished and finished
• Chryselephantine sculptures, like Pheidias' Athena Parthenos, combined gold and ivory over a wooden core
  • Gold was used for drapery, armor, and accessories, while ivory was used for flesh parts
  • Precious stones and colored glass were used for details such as eyes and jewelry
• Sculptures were often composed of separate parts joined together using dowels, tenons, and mortises
• Contrapposto, a pose in which the weight is shifted onto one leg, was introduced to create a more naturalistic and dynamic stance

Iconic Sculptures of the Parthenon

• Pediment sculptures:
  • East pediment depicted the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus in the presence of other Olympian gods
  • West pediment portrayed the contest between Athena and Poseidon for the patronage of Athens
• Metope sculptures:
  • 92 metopes, each featuring a mythological battle or heroic scene
  • South metopes: Centauromachy (battle between Lapiths and Centaurs)
  • North metopes: Trojan War scenes
  • East metopes: Gigantomachy (battle between the Olympian gods and the Giants)
  • West metopes: Amazonomachy (battle between Greeks and Amazons)
• Ionic frieze:
  • Continuous band of relief sculpture, approximately 160 meters (525 feet) long
  • Depicted the Panathenaic procession, a festival held every four years in honor of Athena
  • Showcased a variety of figures, including cavalry, chariots, musicians, and offering bearers
  • Culminated in the central scene of the east frieze, depicting the presentation of the peplos (sacred robe) to Athena
• Athena Parthenos:
  • Colossal chryselephantine statue of Athena, created by Pheidias
  • Stood approximately 11.5 meters (38 feet) tall inside the Parthenon's naos
  • Depicted Athena standing, wearing a helmet, holding a Nike in her right hand and a shield in her left

Symbolism and Meaning in Classical Sculpture

• Classical sculpture embodied the ideals of balance, harmony, and proportion, reflecting the Greek concept of kalos kagathos (beautiful and good)
• Sculptures of gods and heroes represented the epitome of physical and moral perfection
• The Parthenon and its sculptures served as a symbol of Athenian power, wealth, and cultural achievements
  • Pediment sculptures emphasized Athena's importance and her connection to the city of Athens
  • Metope sculptures showcased Athenian military prowess and their role as defenders of civilization against barbarism
  • Ionic frieze represented the unity and cohesion of the Athenian citizenry through the Panathenaic procession
• Athena Parthenos, the cult statue, embodied the city's patron goddess and her attributes of wisdom, warfare, and protection
• The use of costly materials (gold, ivory, and precious stones) in chryselephantine sculptures signified the importance and value placed on the deities they represented
• The idealized and naturalistic rendering of the human form in Classical sculpture reflected the Greek belief in the inherent dignity and worth of the individual

Legacy and Impact on Later Art

• The Parthenon and its sculptures have become iconic symbols of ancient Greek art and culture
• The architectural and sculptural principles employed in the Parthenon influenced the development of Western art and architecture for centuries
  • The Parthenon's proportions and design elements were studied and emulated by architects during the Renaissance and Neoclassical periods
  • The idealized human forms and naturalistic rendering in Classical sculpture set the standard for figurative art in the Western tradition
• The Parthenon Marbles (Elgin Marbles), a collection of sculptures removed from the Parthenon by Lord Elgin in the early 19th century, have been a source of ongoing debate and controversy
  • Currently housed in the British Museum, their ownership and repatriation to Greece remain contentious issues
• The Parthenon and its sculptures have inspired countless artists, architects, and scholars, serving as a touchstone for discussions on art, beauty, and cultural heritage
• The legacy of Pheidias and his masterful sculptures has elevated him to the status of one of the greatest artists of all time
• The study and appreciation of Classical sculpture have played a significant role in shaping art historical discourse and continue to influence contemporary artistic practices