🏺Greek Art and Architecture – 500 to 320 BC Unit 9 – Late Classical Sculpture: Key Sculptors

Main Sculptors and Their Works

• Praxiteles known for his graceful and sensual sculptures of gods and goddesses (Aphrodite of Knidos, Hermes and the Infant Dionysus)
• Scopas renowned for his emotional intensity and dynamic compositions (Maenad, Pothos)
  • Introduced a new level of expressiveness and movement in his figures
  • Collaborated on the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
• Lysippos served as the court sculptor of Alexander the Great and created more naturalistic, slender figures (Apoxyomenos, Farnese Hercules)
  • Developed a new canon of proportions, with smaller heads and more elongated bodies
  • His style influenced the subsequent Hellenistic period
• Leochares worked on the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and created notable works such as Apollo Belvedere and Ganymede Abducted by the Eagle
• Timotheos contributed to the sculptures of the Temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus and the Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea

Stylistic Developments

• Late Classical sculpture marked a shift towards more naturalistic and expressive representations of the human form
• Increased emphasis on the portrayal of emotion, movement, and individual character
• Softer, more sensuous modeling of the body, with a greater sense of fluidity and grace
• Exploration of contrapposto, where the weight is shifted to one leg, creating a more dynamic and lifelike stance
• Drapery becomes more intricate and transparent, revealing the underlying form of the body
  • Wet drapery technique used to highlight the contours of the figure
• Facial expressions become more nuanced and individualized, conveying a range of emotions
• Greater attention to anatomical detail and the representation of musculature

Materials and Techniques

• Marble remained the primary material for large-scale sculptures, sourced from quarries such as Mount Pentelicus and the island of Paros
  • Different types of marble offered varying degrees of translucency and color
• Bronze casting techniques were refined, allowing for more complex and detailed compositions
  • Lost-wax method used to create hollow bronze sculptures
  • Copper alloys added to create different patinas and color effects
• Chryselephantine sculpture, combining gold and ivory, was used for luxury works (Athena Parthenos by Phidias)
• Polychromy, the use of color on sculptures, was common, with pigments applied to enhance realism and visual impact
• Techniques such as piecing together separate parts and using tenons for attachment were employed to create larger, more complex sculptures
• Specialized tools, such as chisels, drills, and rasps, were used to carve and refine the details of the sculptures

Themes and Subjects

• Mythological figures and gods remained popular subjects, often depicted in more humanized and relatable forms (Aphrodite, Apollo, Dionysus)
• Heroic themes, such as the labors of Heracles and the exploits of Theseus, were explored in sculpture
• Portraits of notable individuals, such as philosophers, poets, and rulers, became more common (portraits of Plato, Aristotle, Alexander the Great)
• Athletic figures and ideal male beauty were celebrated, with sculptures of athletes and warriors (Apoxyomenos, Farnese Hercules)
• Female beauty and sensuality were explored through sculptures of goddesses and mythological figures (Aphrodite of Knidos, Maenad)
• Allegorical and personified concepts, such as Victory (Nike) and Love (Eros), were represented in sculpture
• Funerary art, including grave stelae and tomb sculptures, depicted the deceased and scenes of farewell or mourning

Cultural Context and Influences

• The Late Classical period coincided with the rise of Macedon and the conquests of Alexander the Great, leading to increased cultural exchange and the spread of Greek art and ideas
• Philosophical and intellectual developments, such as the teachings of Plato and Aristotle, influenced artistic expression and the exploration of human emotions and character
• The growing wealth and power of individual cities and rulers led to the commissioning of grand sculptural projects and monuments (Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, Temple of Artemis at Ephesus)
• Religious beliefs and practices continued to shape artistic themes and the representation of gods and mythological figures
• The increasing importance of the individual and the celebration of human achievement influenced the portrayal of notable figures and the exploration of personal expression in sculpture
• Interaction with other cultures, particularly in the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor, introduced new artistic influences and motifs

Famous Examples and Where to Find Them

• Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles, originally housed in the Temple of Aphrodite at Knidos, now known through Roman copies (Vatican Museums, Louvre)
• Hermes and the Infant Dionysus by Praxiteles, discovered in the Temple of Hera at Olympia, now in the Archaeological Museum of Olympia
• Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, a monumental tomb for Mausolus, featuring sculptures by Scopas and other artists, now in the British Museum
• Apoxyomenos by Lysippos, known through a Roman marble copy found in Croatia, now in the Vatican Museums
• Farnese Hercules by Lysippos, a Roman marble copy of the original bronze, now in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples
• Apollo Belvedere, possibly by Leochares, a Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze original, now in the Vatican Museums
• Nike of Samothrace, a Hellenistic sculpture influenced by the Late Classical style, now in the Louvre

Impact on Later Art

• The Late Classical style had a profound influence on the subsequent Hellenistic period, which further developed the trends of naturalism, emotion, and individualism
• Roman art heavily drew upon Late Classical Greek sculpture, with many famous works known through Roman copies and adaptations
• The rediscovery of ancient Greek sculpture during the Renaissance inspired artists such as Michelangelo and Bernini, who sought to emulate and build upon the classical ideals
• Neoclassical art of the 18th and 19th centuries looked to Late Classical sculpture as a model of beauty, proportion, and expression
• Modern and contemporary artists continue to engage with the legacy of Late Classical sculpture, reinterpreting and challenging its forms and themes
• The enduring influence of Late Classical sculpture can be seen in the training of artists, the collections of major museums, and the popular imagination of Greek art and culture

Key Takeaways

• The Late Classical period marked a significant shift in Greek sculpture towards naturalism, emotion, and individualism
• Key sculptors such as Praxiteles, Scopas, and Lysippos pioneered new styles and techniques that influenced the course of Western art
• Marble and bronze were the primary materials used, with refined carving and casting techniques allowing for greater detail and complexity
• Mythological figures, portraits, and idealized human forms were popular subjects, often exploring themes of beauty, heroism, and emotion
• The cultural context of the Late Classical period, including the rise of Macedon, philosophical developments, and increased wealth and cultural exchange, shaped the production and themes of sculpture
• Many famous examples of Late Classical sculpture are known through Roman copies and can be found in major museums around the world
• The legacy of Late Classical sculpture extends far beyond its own time, influencing artistic traditions from the Hellenistic period to the present day