18.2 Ground-based and in-situ measurement systems

Atmospheric scientists use various tools to measure and understand our atmosphere. From weather stations to radiosondes, these instruments provide crucial data on temperature, humidity, wind, and more. Ground-based systems offer detailed, local insights, while satellites give a broader view.

In-situ observations directly measure atmospheric conditions, while remote sensing gathers data from afar. Each method has its strengths and limitations. Scientists combine these approaches, along with careful data analysis, to paint a comprehensive picture of our atmosphere and predict weather patterns.

Ground-Based and In-Situ Measurement Systems

Types of atmospheric measurement systems

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• Weather stations measure temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, precipitation, and atmospheric pressure using automated systems like AWOS (Automated Weather Observing System) and ASOS (Automated Surface Observing System)
• Radiosondes are weather balloons equipped with sensors that measure atmospheric variables (temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, and pressure) at different altitudes providing vertical profiles
• Radar systems include Doppler radar which measures precipitation and wind velocity, and wind profilers which measure wind speed and direction at various altitudes
• Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) uses laser pulses to measure atmospheric properties such as aerosols, clouds, and wind
• Air quality monitoring stations measure concentrations of pollutants like ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter
• Flux towers measure exchanges of carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy between the atmosphere and Earth's surface

Principles of in-situ observations

• Direct measurements involve instruments directly measuring atmospheric variables at their location using devices like thermometers, barometers, anemometers, and hygrometers
• Remote sensing techniques use instruments that measure atmospheric properties from a distance using electromagnetic radiation and include radar, lidar, and sodar (sonic detection and ranging)
• Sampling techniques involve collecting air samples and analyzing them in a laboratory, such as flask sampling for greenhouse gas concentrations and filter sampling for particulate matter
• Data logging and transmission record measurements on-site or transmit them to a central location for analysis

Ground-based vs satellite-based measurements

• Advantages of ground-based and in-situ measurements:
  • Provide direct, high-resolution measurements at specific locations
  • Allow for continuous monitoring and long-term data collection
  • Can measure variables that satellites cannot, such as air quality and surface fluxes
• Limitations of ground-based and in-situ measurements:
  • Limited spatial coverage compared to satellites
  • Measurements may be affected by local factors, such as topography and land use
  • Maintenance and calibration of instruments can be costly and time-consuming
• Advantages of satellite-based observations:
  • Provide global coverage and large-scale spatial patterns
  • Can measure atmospheric variables in remote or inaccessible areas
  • Offer a synoptic view of the atmosphere and Earth's surface
• Limitations of satellite-based observations:
  • Lower spatial and temporal resolution compared to ground-based measurements
  • Measurements may be affected by atmospheric conditions, such as clouds and aerosols
  • Retrieval algorithms are needed to convert satellite data into atmospheric variables

Interpretation of in-situ data

• Quality control checks data for errors, outliers, and inconsistencies and applies calibration and validation procedures to ensure data accuracy
• Data processing and analysis converts raw data into meaningful variables and units and uses statistical methods to identify trends, patterns, and relationships in the data
• Data visualization creates graphs, maps, and other visual representations to communicate data effectively
• Data assimilation combines ground-based and in-situ measurements with satellite observations and model output to improve the accuracy and spatial coverage of atmospheric analyses and forecasts
• Applications of ground-based and in-situ data include studying atmospheric processes, validating satellite measurements, evaluating climate models, weather forecasting, air quality monitoring, and climate change research