6.3 Unions and collective bargaining

Unions and collective bargaining are crucial elements of labor relations in capitalist economies. They emerged as a way for workers to unite and advocate for better wages, working conditions, and benefits from employers.

These organizations come in various forms, including craft, industrial, and general unions. Each type represents different worker groups and employs diverse strategies to negotiate with employers, shaping the dynamics of labor markets and influencing economic outcomes.

Types of unions

• Unions are organizations that represent workers in a particular industry, trade, or company
• Different types of unions have emerged to address the specific needs and challenges faced by workers in various sectors
• The structure and focus of unions can vary depending on factors such as the nature of the work, the size of the workforce, and the historical context

Craft unions

Top images from around the web for Craft unions

• 

  File:Apprenticeship.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Workers United with the Labor Movement: Why We Still Need Collective Bargaining Today View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  12.3 Craft and Industrial Unions – HIST 204 Abridged Course Text View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Apprenticeship.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Workers United with the Labor Movement: Why We Still Need Collective Bargaining Today View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Craft unions

• 

  File:Apprenticeship.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Workers United with the Labor Movement: Why We Still Need Collective Bargaining Today View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  12.3 Craft and Industrial Unions – HIST 204 Abridged Course Text View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Apprenticeship.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Workers United with the Labor Movement: Why We Still Need Collective Bargaining Today View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Represent skilled workers in a particular trade or craft (carpenters, electricians, plumbers)
• Focus on maintaining high standards of workmanship and protecting the interests of skilled workers
• Often have a long history dating back to the guild system of the Middle Ages
• May require members to complete an apprenticeship program or demonstrate a certain level of skill
• Examples include the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW) and the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America (UBC)

Industrial unions

• Represent all workers in a particular industry, regardless of their specific job or skill level
• Emerged in the early 20th century as mass production and assembly line work became more common
• Focus on improving wages, benefits, and working conditions for all workers in the industry
• Often have a more diverse membership than craft unions, including both skilled and unskilled workers
• Examples include the United Auto Workers (UAW) and the United Steelworkers (USW)

General unions

• Represent workers across multiple industries and occupations
• Provide a unified voice for workers who may not have a strong union presence in their specific industry
• Often have a broader focus on social and economic justice issues beyond the workplace
• May be more involved in political activism and community organizing than other types of unions
• Examples include the Service Employees International Union (SEIU) and the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME)

Union structure and governance

• Unions are democratic organizations that are governed by their members
• The structure and governance of unions is designed to ensure that the interests of workers are represented effectively
• Union leadership, bylaws, and membership requirements play a critical role in shaping the direction and effectiveness of unions

Union leadership

• Elected by union members to represent their interests and make decisions on their behalf
• Typically includes a president, vice president, secretary, treasurer, and other officers
• Responsible for negotiating contracts, handling grievances, and advocating for workers' rights
• May be full-time paid positions or part-time volunteer roles, depending on the size and resources of the union
• Leadership is accountable to the membership through regular elections and other mechanisms of democratic oversight

Union bylaws and constitutions

• Set out the rules and procedures that govern the operation of the union
• Typically cover issues such as the rights and responsibilities of members, the election of officers, and the handling of grievances
• May be amended by a vote of the membership or by the union leadership, depending on the specific provisions of the bylaws
• Provide a framework for ensuring that the union operates in a transparent and accountable manner
• Help to ensure that the union remains focused on its core mission of representing workers' interests

Union membership requirements

• Vary depending on the specific union and the industry or occupation it represents
• May include paying dues, attending meetings, and participating in union activities
• Some unions have closed shops, where membership is required as a condition of employment
• Others have open shops, where membership is voluntary but workers still benefit from the union's collective bargaining efforts
• Membership requirements help to ensure that the union has the resources and support it needs to effectively represent workers' interests
• They also help to foster a sense of solidarity and shared purpose among workers

Collective bargaining process

• The process by which unions and employers negotiate the terms and conditions of employment
• Collective bargaining is a key tool for unions to secure better wages, benefits, and working conditions for their members
• The bargaining process involves a range of strategies and tactics, and the outcome depends on the relative bargaining power of the parties involved

Negotiation strategies

• Unions and employers may adopt different negotiation strategies depending on their goals and the specific issues at stake
• Distributive bargaining involves a zero-sum approach, where one party's gains come at the expense of the other party's losses
• Integrative bargaining involves a collaborative approach, where the parties work together to find mutually beneficial solutions
• Unions may use a range of tactics to pressure employers, such as strikes, picketing, and public campaigns
• Employers may use tactics such as lockouts, replacement workers, and legal challenges to resist union demands

Bargaining power of unions

• Depends on a range of factors, including the size and solidarity of the union, the skills and expertise of its members, and the economic conditions of the industry
• Unions with a large and active membership, a strong strike fund, and the ability to disrupt production or services have more bargaining power
• Unions in industries with high barriers to entry, such as skilled trades or highly regulated sectors, may have more bargaining power
• Unions may also gain bargaining power through political influence, community support, and alliances with other unions or advocacy groups

Bargaining power of employers

• Depends on factors such as the size and profitability of the company, the availability of alternative labor sources, and the legal and regulatory environment
• Employers with a large and diversified workforce, the ability to relocate or outsource production, and a favorable political climate may have more bargaining power
• Employers may also gain bargaining power by using tactics such as lockouts, replacement workers, and legal challenges to union activities
• In some cases, employers may seek to avoid unionization altogether through union avoidance strategies

Collective bargaining agreements

• The outcome of the collective bargaining process, setting out the terms and conditions of employment for a specified period of time
• Typically cover issues such as wages, benefits, hours of work, job classifications, and grievance procedures
• May also include provisions on issues such as safety and health, training and education, and union security
• Provide a degree of stability and predictability for both workers and employers, while also allowing for flexibility and adaptation to changing circumstances
• Enforcement of collective bargaining agreements is a key role of unions, through grievance procedures and other mechanisms

Union tactics

• Unions use a variety of tactics to advance the interests of their members and to pressure employers to agree to their demands
• These tactics can range from negotiations and lobbying to more confrontational actions such as strikes and boycotts
• The choice of tactics depends on factors such as the bargaining power of the union, the legal and political environment, and the specific issues at stake

Strikes and work stoppages

• A strike is a collective action by workers to withhold their labor in order to pressure the employer to agree to their demands
• Strikes can be a powerful tactic, as they disrupt production and can impose significant costs on the employer
• However, strikes also involve risks for workers, who may lose wages and benefits during the strike and face the possibility of being replaced by other workers
• Unions may also use other forms of work stoppages, such as slowdowns, sick-outs, or work-to-rule campaigns, to pressure employers without a full-scale strike

Picketing and boycotts

• Picketing involves workers and their supporters demonstrating outside the workplace to publicize their grievances and to pressure the employer to agree to their demands
• Boycotts involve encouraging consumers or other businesses to refrain from purchasing the employer's products or services in order to pressure the employer to agree to the union's demands
• These tactics can be effective in raising public awareness and support for the union's cause, and in imposing economic costs on the employer
• However, they may also be subject to legal restrictions and can be difficult to sustain over a long period of time

Lobbying and political action

• Unions may engage in lobbying and political action to advance their interests at the local, state, or national level
• This can involve supporting candidates who are friendly to labor, advocating for legislation that benefits workers, or opposing policies that are seen as harmful to unions
• Unions may also form alliances with other advocacy groups or social movements to build broader support for their agenda
• Political action can be an important complement to collective bargaining, as it can help to shape the legal and regulatory environment in which unions operate

Employer responses to unions

• Employers may adopt a range of strategies in response to union organizing efforts or collective bargaining demands
• These strategies can range from cooperation and compromise to more confrontational tactics such as union avoidance or unfair labor practices
• The choice of strategy depends on factors such as the bargaining power of the union, the legal and political environment, and the specific issues at stake

Union avoidance strategies

• Some employers may seek to avoid unionization altogether through a variety of tactics
• These can include providing competitive wages and benefits to reduce the incentive for workers to unionize
• Employers may also engage in anti-union campaigns, such as holding mandatory meetings to discourage workers from supporting the union
• In some cases, employers may use more aggressive tactics such as threatening or firing workers who support the union, which is illegal under federal labor law

Lockouts and strikebreakers

• A lockout is a tactic used by employers to pressure unions to agree to their demands by preventing workers from entering the workplace
• Lockouts can be a way for employers to impose costs on the union and its members, and to maintain production using replacement workers
• Strikebreakers, also known as scabs, are workers who are hired to replace striking workers and maintain production during a strike
• The use of strikebreakers is controversial and is often seen as a way to undermine the bargaining power of the union

Unfair labor practices

• Unfair labor practices are actions by employers that violate the rights of workers under federal labor law
• Examples include interfering with union organizing efforts, discriminating against workers who support the union, or refusing to bargain in good faith with the union
• Unions can file charges with the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) if they believe that an employer has engaged in unfair labor practices
• If the NLRB finds that the employer has violated the law, it can order the employer to take corrective action, such as reinstating fired workers or bargaining with the union

Economic effects of unions

• Unions can have significant economic effects on workers, firms, and the broader economy
• These effects can be both positive and negative, and depend on a range of factors such as the bargaining power of the union, the competitiveness of the industry, and the macroeconomic environment

Union wage premium

• One of the most significant economic effects of unions is the union wage premium, which refers to the higher wages and benefits that unionized workers receive compared to non-union workers in similar jobs
• Studies have found that the union wage premium can range from 10-20% or more, depending on the industry and occupation
• The union wage premium is often seen as a way to reduce income inequality and to ensure that workers receive a fair share of the profits generated by their labor

Impact on non-union wages

• Unions can also have an impact on the wages and benefits of non-union workers, through a process known as the "threat effect"
• The threat effect refers to the fact that non-union employers may raise wages and benefits to avoid unionization and to compete with unionized firms for workers
• Studies have found that the presence of unions in an industry or region can lead to higher wages and benefits for non-union workers, although the effect is generally smaller than the union wage premium

Productivity and efficiency

• The impact of unions on productivity and efficiency is a subject of debate among economists and policymakers
• Some argue that unions can reduce productivity by imposing restrictive work rules, protecting underperforming workers, and creating adversarial relationships between workers and management
• Others argue that unions can increase productivity by promoting worker voice, improving communication and collaboration, and encouraging investment in training and technology
• The evidence on the impact of unions on productivity is mixed, and depends on factors such as the specific industry, the nature of the work, and the quality of labor-management relations

Legal framework of unions

• The legal framework of unions in the United States is shaped by a complex set of federal and state laws and regulations
• These laws and regulations establish the rights and responsibilities of unions, employers, and workers, and provide mechanisms for resolving disputes and enforcing agreements

National Labor Relations Act

• The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) is the primary federal law governing labor relations in the private sector
• Passed in 1935, the NLRA establishes the right of workers to form and join unions, to engage in collective bargaining, and to take collective action such as strikes
• The NLRA also prohibits certain unfair labor practices by employers, such as interfering with union organizing efforts or discriminating against workers who support the union
• The NLRA is enforced by the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), an independent federal agency that investigates and adjudicates disputes between unions and employers

Right-to-work laws

• Right-to-work laws are state laws that prohibit unions from requiring workers to pay dues or fees as a condition of employment
• Currently, 27 states have right-to-work laws, which are seen by some as a way to weaken the bargaining power of unions and to attract businesses to the state
• Supporters of right-to-work laws argue that they protect workers' freedom of association and promote economic growth
• Opponents argue that right-to-work laws allow workers to benefit from union representation without paying their fair share of the costs, and that they undermine the ability of unions to effectively represent workers

Public sector unions

• Public sector unions represent workers employed by government agencies at the federal, state, and local levels
• The legal framework for public sector unions is different from that of private sector unions, and varies by jurisdiction
• In some states, public sector workers have the right to form and join unions and to engage in collective bargaining, while in others they do not
• The Supreme Court has ruled that public sector workers cannot be required to pay union dues or fees as a condition of employment, which has led to a decline in public sector union membership in some states

Globalization and unions

• Globalization has had a significant impact on unions and the labor movement in the United States and around the world
• The increasing mobility of capital and the growth of global supply chains have created new challenges and opportunities for unions, as well as new forms of worker solidarity and resistance

Outsourcing and offshoring

• Outsourcing and offshoring refer to the practice of moving jobs and production to other countries where labor costs are lower and regulations are less stringent
• These practices have led to the loss of millions of unionized manufacturing jobs in the United States and other developed countries
• Unions have responded by advocating for policies to protect domestic jobs and to ensure that workers in other countries are not exploited
• Some unions have also sought to organize workers in other countries and to build transnational alliances to counter the power of multinational corporations

International labor solidarity

• International labor solidarity refers to the efforts of unions and workers to build alliances and support each other across national borders
• This can take the form of information sharing, joint campaigns, and direct action in support of workers' struggles in other countries
• Examples of international labor solidarity include the campaign to support striking Coca-Cola workers in Colombia, and the global campaign to improve working conditions in the garment industry
• International labor solidarity is seen as a way to counter the power of multinational corporations and to promote worker rights and social justice on a global scale

Trade agreements and labor standards

• Trade agreements between countries can have a significant impact on workers and unions, as they can lead to the movement of jobs and production to countries with lower labor standards
• Unions have advocated for the inclusion of strong labor standards in trade agreements, to ensure that workers in all countries are protected and that there is a level playing field for competition
• The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and other trade agreements have been criticized by unions for failing to adequately protect worker rights and for contributing to job losses in the United States
• The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), which replaced NAFTA in 2020, includes stronger labor standards and enforcement mechanisms, but some unions argue that they do not go far enough

Future of unions

• The future of unions in the United States and around the world is uncertain, as they face a range of challenges and opportunities in the 21st century
• Declining union membership, changing employment relationships, and the rise of alternative forms of worker representation are among the key factors shaping the future of the labor movement

Declining union membership

• Union membership in the United States has been declining for several decades, from a peak of around 35% of the workforce in the 1950s to around 10% today
• This decline is due to a range of factors, including deindustrialization, globalization, and anti-union policies and practices by employers and governments
• The decline in union membership has led to a reduction in the bargaining power of workers and has contributed to rising income inequality and stagnant wages for many workers
• Unions are exploring new strategies to organize and represent workers in the changing economy, such as digital organizing and sectoral bargaining

Alternative forms of worker representation

• As traditional unions have declined, new forms of worker representation have emerged, such as worker centers, cooperatives, and online platforms
• Worker centers are community-based organizations that provide services and advocacy for low-wage and immigrant workers, often in industries where traditional unions are weak or absent
• Cooperatives are worker-owned businesses that prioritize democratic decision-making and the equitable distribution of profits
• Online platforms such as Uber and TaskRabbit have created new forms of work that challenge traditional employment relationships and raise questions about worker classification and rights

Unions in the gig economy

• The rise of the gig economy, characterized by short-term contracts and freelance work, has created new challenges and opportunities for unions
• Gig workers are often classified as independent contractors rather than employees, which means they are not covered by many labor laws and protections
• Some unions have sought to organize gig workers and to advocate for their rights and benefits, such as the right to collective bargaining and access to social insurance programs
• However, organizing gig workers is challenging due to their dispersed and precarious nature of their work, and the resistance of gig economy companies to unionization
• The future of unions in the gig economy will depend on their ability to adapt to the changing nature of work and to build new forms of solidarity and power among workers