🇲🇽Chicano History in the United States Unit 2 – Spanish Colonization & Mexican Independence

Historical Context

• Pre-Columbian civilizations (Maya, Aztec, Inca) flourished in Mesoamerica and South America prior to Spanish arrival
  • Developed advanced systems of agriculture, architecture, astronomy, and mathematics
• Spain emerged as a powerful nation in the late 15th century following the Reconquista
  • Unification of Castile and Aragon under Catholic Monarchs Isabella I and Ferdinand II
• Technological advancements (caravels, astrolabe) enabled long-distance seafaring and exploration
• Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the New World between Spain and Portugal
• Spain's motivations for exploration included the search for wealth, spreading Christianity, and establishing global influence

Spanish Colonization Begins

• Christopher Columbus's voyages (1492-1504) initiated Spanish exploration and colonization of the Americas
• Spain established the first permanent European settlement in the Americas at Santo Domingo (Hispaniola) in 1496
• Conquistadors (Hernán Cortés, Francisco Pizarro) led military expeditions to conquer indigenous empires
  • Fall of the Aztec Empire (1521) and Inca Empire (1572)
• Encomienda system granted Spanish colonists control over indigenous labor and tribute
• Spain established viceroyalties to govern its American territories (New Spain, Peru)
• Columbian Exchange introduced new crops (maize, potatoes), animals (horses, cattle), and diseases (smallpox, measles) between the Old and New Worlds

Colonial Society and Structure

• Spanish colonial society was hierarchical and based on a casta system
  • Peninsulares (Spanish-born) held the highest positions of power
  • Criollos (American-born Spaniards) often resented their subordinate status
  • Mestizos (mixed Spanish and indigenous ancestry) formed an intermediate class
  • Indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans occupied the lowest rungs of society
• Racial mixing (mestizaje) led to the emergence of new ethnic identities and cultural syncretism
• Urban centers (Mexico City, Lima) served as hubs of political, economic, and cultural activity
• Haciendas functioned as large agricultural estates and centers of rural life
• Spanish language and cultural practices became dominant, while indigenous languages and traditions persisted in some areas

Indigenous Resistance and Adaptation

• Indigenous peoples responded to Spanish colonization through various forms of resistance and adaptation
  • Armed rebellions (Mixtón War, Taki Onqoy movement) challenged Spanish authority
  • Passive resistance included fleeing to remote areas, withholding labor, and maintaining traditional practices
• Some indigenous groups formed alliances with the Spanish to gain advantages over rival tribes
• Syncretism blended indigenous and Spanish cultural elements (religion, art, language)
• Indigenous knowledge and labor were essential to the functioning of colonial society
  • Mita system required indigenous communities to provide labor for mines and public works projects
• Demographic collapse due to disease, warfare, and exploitation severely impacted indigenous populations

Economic Systems and Exploitation

• Colonial economy was based on the extraction of precious metals (silver, gold) and agricultural production
• Silver mines (Potosí, Zacatecas) were a major source of wealth for the Spanish Crown
  • Indigenous and enslaved African labor was exploited under harsh conditions
• Plantation agriculture (sugar, tobacco, cacao) relied on enslaved African labor
• Mercantilism regulated trade to benefit the Spanish metropole
  • Galleon trade connected the Philippines, Mexico, and Spain
• Obrajes (textile workshops) utilized indigenous labor to produce goods for local and export markets
• Economic policies (quinto real, alcabala) ensured the flow of wealth to Spain

Role of the Catholic Church

• The Catholic Church played a central role in Spanish colonization and colonial society
  • Missionaries (Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits) worked to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity
  • Missions served as centers of religious indoctrination, economic production, and cultural change
• Church held significant political power and influenced colonial governance
• Clergy acted as intermediaries between Spanish authorities and indigenous communities
• Syncretism combined Catholic and indigenous religious beliefs and practices
  • Virgin of Guadalupe emerged as a symbol of Mexican identity and devotion
• Church controlled education and intellectual life through universities (Mexico City, Lima) and the Inquisition

Seeds of Independence

• Bourbon Reforms (18th century) aimed to centralize control and increase revenue, sparking discontent among criollos
• American and French Revolutions inspired ideas of liberty, equality, and self-governance
• Peninsular-criollo tensions and resentment over political and economic inequalities grew
• Enlightenment ideas spread through intellectual circles and secret societies
• Economic crises and social unrest (Túpac Amaru II Rebellion) revealed the fragility of colonial rule
• Napoleonic Wars and the overthrow of the Spanish monarchy (1808) created a power vacuum and opportunity for independence movements

Key Figures in Mexican Independence

• Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, launched the Grito de Dolores (1810) calling for independence and social reform
  • Led a massive but short-lived uprising of indigenous and mestizo peasants
• José María Morelos, another priest, took up the cause after Hidalgo's execution
  • Convened the Congress of Chilpancingo (1813) to draft a constitution and plan for independence
• Agustín de Iturbide, a former royalist officer, negotiated the Plan of Iguala (1821) which established an independent Mexican monarchy
  • Briefly ruled as Emperor Agustín I before being deposed in favor of a republic
• Vicente Guerrero, a mestizo insurgent leader, allied with Iturbide to achieve independence
  • Served as one of Mexico's first presidents and abolished slavery

Impact on Future Chicano Identity

• Mexican Independence (1821) created a new nation but did not resolve deep-rooted social and racial inequalities
• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) ended the Mexican-American War, resulting in Mexico ceding vast territories to the United States
  • Mexicans living in the ceded territories became U.S. citizens, forming the basis of the Chicano population
• Chicano identity emerged as a unique blend of Mexican, indigenous, and American influences
  • Shaped by experiences of conquest, colonization, independence, and migration
• Chicano Movement (1960s-1970s) drew inspiration from the legacy of resistance and sought to assert cultural pride and political self-determination
• Ongoing debates over language, immigration, and assimilation reflect the complex history and identity of Chicanos in the United States