11.1 International climate agreements and negotiations

Climate negotiations are a complex dance of global cooperation. From the UNFCCC to the Paris Agreement, international efforts have evolved to address the urgent challenge of climate change. These agreements set emission targets, establish support mechanisms, and aim to limit global temperature rise.

However, challenges persist. Political, economic, and implementation hurdles complicate progress. Various stakeholders, from governments to NGOs and youth activists, shape the negotiations. The ongoing struggle is to balance national interests with the collective need for decisive climate action.

History of Climate Agreements

Early International Efforts

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• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 established the first major international framework to address climate change
  • Set the stage for future negotiations and agreements
  • Recognized the need for global cooperation on climate issues
• Kyoto Protocol adopted in 1997 introduced binding emission reduction targets for developed countries
  • Implemented market-based mechanisms (emissions trading, Clean Development Mechanism)
  • Aimed to reduce emissions by an average of 5% below 1990 levels during 2008-2012
• Copenhagen Accord of 2009 shifted towards voluntary commitments
  • Acknowledged the necessity for both developed and developing countries to take action
  • Represented a turning point in climate negotiations

Modern Climate Agreements

• Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, marked a significant milestone in climate negotiations
  • Introduced a bottom-up approach with Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) from all countries
  • Aimed to limit global temperature rise to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels
  • Established a global stocktake process to assess collective progress every five years
• Recent negotiations focus on implementing the Paris Agreement
  • Discussions on climate finance (Green Climate Fund)
  • Technology transfer initiatives (Climate Technology Centre and Network)
  • Adaptation measures (National Adaptation Plans)

Evolution of Negotiation Approaches

• Growing recognition of the urgency of climate action
  • Increased emphasis on science-based targets (IPCC reports)
  • Incorporation of climate risk assessments in policy-making
• Shift towards more inclusive and flexible approaches to global cooperation
  • Engagement of non-state actors (cities, businesses, civil society organizations)
  • Development of multi-stakeholder partnerships (Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action)
• Emphasis on transparency and accountability
  • Enhanced transparency framework under the Paris Agreement
  • Regular reporting and review mechanisms

Provisions of Climate Agreements

Emission Reduction Targets

• Kyoto Protocol established legally binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries
  • Aimed for an average reduction of 5% below 1990 levels during 2008-2012
  • Introduced differentiated responsibilities between developed and developing countries
• Paris Agreement set a global temperature goal
  • Keep global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels
  • Pursue efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius
• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement
  • Countries set their own climate targets based on national circumstances
  • Regular reporting on progress and updating of targets every five years

Flexibility Mechanisms

• Kyoto Protocol introduced market-based mechanisms
  • Emissions trading allowed countries to buy and sell emission credits
  • Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) enabled developed countries to invest in emission-reduction projects in developing countries
  • Joint Implementation (JI) permitted collaboration on emission reduction projects between developed countries
• Paris Agreement established cooperative approaches
  • Article 6 mechanisms for voluntary cooperation between countries
  • Sustainable Development Mechanism to succeed the CDM

Support for Developing Countries

• Climate finance provisions
  • Commitment by developed countries to mobilize $100 billion annually by 2020 for developing countries
  • Establishment of the Green Climate Fund to support mitigation and adaptation projects
• Technology transfer initiatives
  • Technology Mechanism to enhance technology development and transfer
  • Climate Technology Centre and Network to provide technical assistance
• Capacity-building support
  • Paris Committee on Capacity-building to address capacity gaps in developing countries
  • Capacity-building Initiative for Transparency to help countries meet reporting requirements

Challenges to Climate Agreements

Political and Sovereignty Issues

• National sovereignty concerns hinder international cooperation
  • Countries reluctant to cede control over energy and economic policies
  • Domestic political pressures influence negotiation positions (fossil fuel industry lobbying)
• Free-rider problem in climate action complicates negotiations
  • Countries may benefit from others' efforts without contributing (China's initial resistance to binding targets)
  • Difficulty in enforcing commitments without strong international mechanisms
• Short-term political cycles conflict with long-term nature of climate change
  • Politicians focus on immediate concerns rather than future climate impacts
  • Changes in government can lead to shifts in climate policy (U.S. withdrawal and re-entry to Paris Agreement)

Economic and Development Disparities

• Tensions between developed and developing countries
  • Historical responsibilities for emissions create disagreements (industrialized nations vs. emerging economies)
  • Varying economic development levels lead to different capacities for action
• Balancing economic growth with emissions reduction
  • Developing countries argue for their right to development (India's emphasis on energy access)
  • Concerns about potential economic impacts of stringent climate policies

Implementation and Effectiveness Challenges

• Scientific uncertainty and complexity of climate systems
  • Climate skeptics exploit uncertainties to delay action (debates over climate sensitivity)
  • Difficulty in setting precise targets and measuring progress
• Consensus-based decision-making in international negotiations
  • Compromises often lead to weaker agreements (watering down of language in final texts)
  • Slow progress due to the need for widespread agreement
• Gaps between commitments and actual implementation
  • Insufficient domestic policies to meet international pledges
  • Lack of enforcement mechanisms for non-compliance

Stakeholders in Climate Negotiations

Government and Intergovernmental Actors

• National governments play a central role in negotiations
  • Represent countries' interests and make commitments (G20 countries' influence on global climate policy)
  • Implement domestic policies to meet international obligations
• Intergovernmental organizations facilitate negotiations
  • United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Secretariat organizes conferences
  • World Meteorological Organization (WMO) provides scientific input

Non-Governmental and Civil Society Organizations

• NGOs serve as observers and advocates in negotiations
  • Environmental groups push for stronger climate action (Greenpeace, WWF)
  • Think tanks provide policy analysis and recommendations
• Indigenous peoples and local communities participate in negotiations
  • Bring traditional knowledge to discussions (Arctic Council's involvement of indigenous groups)
  • Highlight impacts of climate change on vulnerable populations

Private Sector and Scientific Community

• Business and industry stakeholders influence negotiations
  • Showcase technological solutions (renewable energy companies)
  • Lobby for policies aligned with their interests (oil and gas industry representatives)
• Scientific bodies provide crucial assessments
  • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) informs target-setting
  • National scientific academies contribute to national positions

Emerging Voices in Climate Diplomacy

• Youth movements and climate activists pressure negotiators
  • School strikes for climate raise public awareness (Fridays for Future movement)
  • Youth delegates participate in official negotiations (YOUNGO constituency)
• Subnational actors engage in parallel diplomacy
  • Cities and regions make their own climate commitments (C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group)
  • State and provincial governments influence national positions (California's climate leadership in the U.S.)