Hard engineering approaches are crucial tools in coastal resilience, offering robust protection against erosion and flooding. These structures, like seawalls, groins, and breakwaters, are designed to withstand powerful coastal forces and provide immediate safeguarding for communities and infrastructure.
Effective implementation requires careful planning, considering wave energy dissipation , structural integrity , and environmental impacts. While offering strong protection, hard engineering can disrupt natural processes and ecosystems, necessitating a balance with softer, more nature-based solutions for sustainable coastal management.
Types of hard engineering
Hard engineering approaches play a crucial role in coastal resilience by providing robust physical barriers against erosion and flooding
These structures are designed to withstand powerful forces of waves, tides, and storms, offering immediate protection to coastal communities and infrastructure
Understanding various types of hard engineering solutions allows coastal engineers to select appropriate interventions based on specific site conditions and protection needs
Seawalls and bulkheads
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Sea wall at Southwold © Graham Horn cc-by-sa/2.0 :: Geograph Britain and Ireland View original
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Top images from around the web for Seawalls and bulkheads Sea wall at Southwold © Graham Horn cc-by-sa/2.0 :: Geograph Britain and Ireland View original
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Vertical or near-vertical structures constructed parallel to the shoreline
Designed to reflect wave energy and prevent erosion of the coastline
Materials used include concrete, steel, or timber
Can be curved or stepped to improve wave energy dissipation
May incorporate features like recurved walls to redirect overtopping water
Revetments and riprap
Sloping structures placed on banks or cliffs to absorb wave energy
Revetments consist of a layer of erosion-resistant material (concrete blocks, stone)
Riprap uses large, irregular rocks or concrete rubble
Designed to dissipate wave energy through interlocking spaces between materials
Often include filter layers and geotextiles to prevent soil erosion beneath the structure
Groins and jetties
Structures built perpendicular to the shoreline to interrupt longshore sediment transport
Groins trap sand on the updrift side, creating wider beaches
Jetties are typically longer and used to stabilize inlet channels
Can be constructed from various materials (wood, concrete, rock)
Often built in series (groin fields) to protect longer stretches of coastline
Breakwaters
Offshore structures designed to reduce wave energy reaching the shoreline
Can be submerged, emergent, or floating
Types include:
Detached breakwaters: individual structures parallel to the shore
Shore-connected breakwaters: attached to the land at one end
Materials used include concrete blocks, rock, or geotextile tubes
May create tombolos or salients in their lee, enhancing beach width
Artificial reefs
Submerged structures designed to dissipate wave energy and promote habitat creation
Can be constructed from various materials (concrete modules, rock, sunken ships)
Serve multiple purposes:
Coastal protection
Habitat enhancement for marine life
Recreational opportunities (diving, fishing)
May be designed to adapt to sea-level rise through natural accretion processes
Design considerations
Effective hard engineering approaches require careful planning and design to ensure long-term effectiveness and minimize negative impacts
Coastal engineers must balance protection goals with environmental considerations and economic feasibility
Design considerations are crucial for optimizing the performance of hard structures in dynamic coastal environments
Wave energy dissipation
Primary function of many hard engineering structures
Achieved through various mechanisms:
Reflection: redirecting wave energy back to sea
Absorption: converting wave energy into heat through friction
Dispersion: breaking up wave energy over a larger area
Factors influencing dissipation efficiency:
Structure geometry (slope, shape, roughness)
Material properties (porosity, surface texture)
Water depth and wave characteristics
Structural integrity
Critical for ensuring long-term performance and safety of hard engineering structures
Key factors to consider:
Load-bearing capacity to withstand wave forces, hydrostatic pressure, and impact loads
Resistance to scour and undermining at the structure's base
Ability to withstand cyclic loading from waves and tides
Design considerations:
Factor of safety calculations for different failure modes
Use of reinforcement (steel rebar, geotextiles) to enhance strength
Incorporation of flexible elements to absorb energy without catastrophic failure
Material selection
Crucial for durability, performance, and environmental compatibility
Common materials used in hard engineering:
Concrete: high strength, versatile, but can have high carbon footprint
Rock: natural appearance, good energy dissipation, variable durability
Steel: high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion-resistant grades available
Geotextiles: used for filtration, separation, and reinforcement
Considerations for material choice:
Resistance to saltwater corrosion and biological degradation
Availability and cost of local materials
Environmental impact of material production and transportation
Environmental impact
Assessment of potential effects on coastal ecosystems and processes
Key areas of concern:
Alteration of sediment transport patterns
Changes in habitat availability for marine and coastal species
Potential for increased erosion in adjacent unprotected areas
Mitigation strategies:
Incorporation of habitat-enhancing features (textured surfaces, tidal pools)
Use of eco-friendly materials (low carbon concrete, recycled materials)
Design modifications to minimize disruption of natural coastal processes
Cost-benefit analysis
Essential for justifying hard engineering projects and securing funding
Factors to consider in the analysis:
Initial construction costs
Long-term maintenance and repair expenses
Value of protected assets (property, infrastructure, ecosystems)
Potential economic benefits (tourism, recreation, property value increase)
Challenges in quantifying:
Ecosystem services provided by natural coastal features
Long-term impacts of climate change and sea-level rise
Social and cultural values associated with coastal areas
Construction techniques
Construction methods for hard engineering structures significantly impact project success, cost, and environmental disturbance
Coastal engineers must consider site-specific conditions and logistical challenges when selecting construction techniques
Innovative approaches can improve efficiency and reduce environmental impacts during the construction phase
Prefabrication vs on-site construction
Prefabrication involves manufacturing components off-site and assembling on location
Advantages of prefabrication:
Improved quality control in controlled factory settings
Reduced on-site construction time and environmental disturbance
Potential for cost savings through standardization and mass production
On-site construction benefits:
Greater flexibility to adapt to local conditions and unforeseen challenges
Reduced transportation costs for materials
Potential for using local labor and materials
Hybrid approaches often combine prefabricated elements with on-site customization
Foundation requirements
Critical for ensuring long-term stability and performance of hard engineering structures
Types of foundations used in coastal engineering:
Pile foundations: deep foundations suitable for soft soils or high loads
Gravity foundations: rely on weight and friction for stability
Sheet pile walls: provide both structural support and water barrier
Factors influencing foundation design:
Soil characteristics and bearing capacity
Depth to bedrock or competent soil layers
Potential for scour and erosion at the structure base
Geotechnical investigations crucial for determining appropriate foundation type and design
Installation methods
Vary depending on structure type, site conditions, and available equipment
Common installation techniques:
Land-based construction: using cranes, excavators, and other heavy machinery
Marine-based construction: employing barges, jack-up platforms, and floating cranes
Hydraulic placement: using pumps and pipes to transport materials (sand, gravel)
Considerations for installation planning:
Tidal windows and weather conditions
Environmental restrictions (breeding seasons, protected species)
Access for equipment and materials delivery
Innovative methods:
GPS-guided placement for precise positioning of structural elements
Use of remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) for underwater inspections and installations
Equipment and machinery
Specialized equipment often required for coastal engineering projects
Common types of machinery used:
Dredgers: for seabed preparation and sand extraction
Pile drivers: for installing foundation piles and sheet piles
Concrete pumps: for placing concrete in underwater or tidal environments
Amphibious excavators: for working in shallow water and intertidal zones
Considerations for equipment selection:
Environmental impact (noise, emissions, seabed disturbance)
Mobilization and demobilization costs
Adaptability to changing site conditions and tides
Emerging technologies:
3D printing for creating complex concrete shapes on-site
Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) for surveying and monitoring
Assessing the effectiveness of hard engineering structures is crucial for justifying investments and informing future designs
Performance evaluation involves both short-term and long-term monitoring of various parameters
Results from performance evaluations guide maintenance strategies and adaptive management approaches
Erosion prevention effectiveness
Measured by comparing shoreline position and beach profiles before and after installation
Monitoring techniques:
Aerial photography and satellite imagery for large-scale changes
LiDAR surveys for high-resolution topographic data
Beach profiling using GPS-equipped survey equipment
Factors influencing effectiveness:
Design parameters (height, length, orientation of structures)
Sediment characteristics and supply
Wave climate and storm frequency
Evaluation of downdrift impacts to assess potential erosion in adjacent areas
Storm surge protection
Assessed through modeling and post-storm damage assessments
Key performance indicators:
Reduction in flood extent and depth during storm events
Prevention of overtopping and breaching of coastal defenses
Resilience of structures to extreme wave conditions
Monitoring approaches:
Installation of water level gauges and wave buoys
Use of pressure sensors to measure wave forces on structures
Post-storm surveys to document damage and effectiveness
Longevity and durability
Crucial for determining the long-term cost-effectiveness of hard engineering solutions
Factors affecting longevity:
Material degradation (corrosion, abrasion, chemical attack)
Structural fatigue from cyclic loading
Settlement and foundation stability
Assessment methods:
Regular visual inspections for signs of wear or damage
Non-destructive testing techniques (ultrasound, ground-penetrating radar)
Material sampling and laboratory testing for strength and durability
Comparison of actual performance with design life projections
Maintenance requirements
Regular maintenance essential for ensuring continued effectiveness of hard engineering structures
Types of maintenance activities:
Routine inspections and cleaning
Repair of minor damage (crack sealing, joint replacement)
Periodic rehabilitation or upgrading of components
Factors influencing maintenance needs:
Environmental conditions (wave energy, storm frequency)
Quality of initial construction and materials used
Effectiveness of preventive maintenance measures
Development of maintenance schedules and budgets based on performance evaluations
Environmental impacts
Hard engineering approaches can significantly alter coastal ecosystems and processes
Understanding and mitigating environmental impacts is crucial for sustainable coastal management
Comprehensive environmental impact assessments are often required before implementing hard engineering solutions
Sediment transport disruption
Hard structures can interrupt natural longshore and cross-shore sediment movement
Impacts on sediment transport:
Accumulation of sediment on updrift side of groins and jetties
Erosion on downdrift side due to sediment starvation
Changes in nearshore bathymetry affecting wave patterns
Assessment methods:
Sediment budget analysis using field measurements and modeling
Tracer studies to track sediment movement patterns
Long-term monitoring of beach profiles and shoreline position
Mitigation strategies:
Sand bypassing systems to transfer sediment around structures
Design modifications to allow some sediment passage
Periodic beach nourishment to compensate for sediment deficits
Habitat alteration
Hard engineering structures can significantly change coastal and marine habitats
Types of habitat impacts:
Loss of natural shoreline and intertidal zones
Creation of new hard substrate habitats on structures
Fragmentation of continuous coastal ecosystems
Effects on biodiversity:
Potential reduction in species diversity in altered areas
Colonization of structures by non-native or invasive species
Changes in community composition due to altered environmental conditions
Mitigation and enhancement measures:
Incorporation of habitat features in structure design (tidal pools, rough surfaces)
Creation of artificial reefs or wetlands to offset habitat loss
Use of eco-friendly materials to promote colonization by native species
Water quality effects
Hard engineering structures can influence local and regional water quality
Potential impacts on water quality:
Increased turbidity during construction and from ongoing erosion
Changes in water circulation patterns affecting nutrient distribution
Potential for contaminant release from construction materials
Monitoring approaches:
Regular water sampling and analysis for key parameters
Use of continuous monitoring buoys for real-time data collection
Sediment quality assessments in affected areas
Mitigation strategies:
Implementation of erosion and sediment control measures during construction
Selection of inert, non-leaching materials for structure construction
Design modifications to improve water circulation and flushing
Coastal ecosystem changes
Hard engineering can lead to broader changes in coastal ecosystem functioning
Ecosystem-level impacts:
Alteration of food webs due to changes in primary productivity
Modification of nursery habitats for fish and invertebrates
Changes in coastal vegetation patterns and distribution
Assessment methods:
Long-term ecological monitoring programs
Ecosystem modeling to predict cumulative impacts
Remote sensing techniques for large-scale ecosystem mapping
Adaptive management approaches:
Integration of ecological considerations in structure design and placement
Implementation of compensatory habitat creation or restoration projects
Ongoing monitoring and adjustment of management strategies based on observed ecosystem responses
Socioeconomic factors
Hard engineering approaches have significant socioeconomic implications for coastal communities
Balancing protection goals with social, economic, and cultural considerations is crucial for project success
Understanding and addressing socioeconomic factors can improve community acceptance and long-term sustainability of coastal protection measures
Property value implications
Hard engineering structures can influence coastal property values in various ways
Potential positive effects:
Increased protection from erosion and flooding
Enhanced beach width and recreational opportunities
Perception of improved safety and stability
Potential negative impacts:
Loss of natural views and beach access
Increased insurance costs in high-risk areas
Perception of environmental degradation
Factors influencing property value changes:
Type and scale of hard engineering structures
Effectiveness in providing protection
Integration with surrounding landscape and amenities
Economic analysis methods:
Hedonic pricing models to isolate effects of coastal protection
Comparative studies of protected vs unprotected coastal areas
Surveys of property owner perceptions and preferences
Tourism and recreation impacts
Hard engineering can significantly affect coastal tourism and recreational activities
Potential benefits for tourism:
Creation of wider, more stable beaches
Protection of coastal infrastructure and attractions
Development of new recreational opportunities (fishing piers, promenades)
Potential drawbacks:
Reduction in natural aesthetic appeal
Limitations on water access and certain water activities
Perception of over-development or environmental harm
Considerations for recreational use:
Safety concerns related to structure design and placement
Accessibility for different user groups (swimmers, surfers, boaters)
Integration with coastal trails and viewpoints
Assessment approaches:
Economic impact studies of tourism-related activities
Visitor surveys to gauge perceptions and preferences
Analysis of changes in recreational use patterns before and after implementation
Crucial for the successful implementation and long-term sustainability of hard engineering projects
Factors influencing community acceptance:
Perceived effectiveness in providing protection
Visual impact and integration with local landscape
Effects on beach access and recreational use
Trust in project proponents and decision-making process
Strategies for improving community acceptance:
Early and ongoing stakeholder engagement
Transparent communication of project goals, benefits, and potential impacts
Incorporation of local knowledge and preferences in design process
Demonstration projects or visualizations to illustrate proposed changes
Assessment methods:
Public opinion surveys and focus groups
Analysis of public comments and participation in planning processes
Monitoring of social media and local media coverage
Regulatory compliance
Hard engineering projects must adhere to various regulations and permitting requirements
Key regulatory considerations:
Environmental protection laws (Clean Water Act, Coastal Zone Management Act)
Endangered species protection and habitat conservation regulations
Local zoning and land use regulations
Historic preservation and cultural resource protection laws
Compliance challenges:
Navigating complex and sometimes conflicting regulations
Balancing protection goals with environmental conservation requirements
Addressing cumulative impacts of multiple coastal protection projects
Strategies for ensuring regulatory compliance :
Early consultation with regulatory agencies
Comprehensive environmental impact assessments
Integration of mitigation measures into project design
Development of long-term monitoring and adaptive management plans
Importance of staying informed about evolving regulations and best practices in coastal management
Integration with soft approaches
Combining hard and soft engineering techniques can optimize coastal protection while minimizing environmental impacts
Integrated approaches aim to work with natural processes rather than against them
Successful integration requires understanding of both engineered structures and ecosystem dynamics
Hybrid engineering solutions
Combine elements of hard and soft engineering to achieve comprehensive coastal protection
Examples of hybrid solutions:
Living shorelines: integrating vegetation with structural elements (rock sills, breakwaters)
Perched beaches: combining seawalls with beach nourishment
Artificial dunes reinforced with geotextiles or core structures
Benefits of hybrid approaches:
Enhanced wave energy dissipation through multiple lines of defense
Improved ecological value compared to traditional hard structures
Potential for self-adjustment to changing conditions
Design considerations:
Balancing structural stability with flexibility for natural processes
Selecting appropriate vegetation species for local conditions
Ensuring compatibility between hard and soft elements
Complementary natural defenses
Leveraging existing natural features to enhance the effectiveness of hard engineering structures
Types of natural defenses:
Coral reefs and oyster beds as offshore wave attenuators
Mangrove forests and salt marshes for storm surge protection
Dune systems for sand storage and wave energy dissipation
Strategies for integration:
Designing hard structures to protect and enhance natural features
Using hard engineering to create conditions favorable for natural defense establishment
Incorporating biomimicry principles in structure design
Benefits of complementary approaches:
Reduced reliance on hard structures alone
Enhanced ecosystem services and biodiversity
Potential for natural adaptation to sea-level rise
Adaptive management strategies
Flexible approaches that allow for adjustments based on monitoring and new information
Key principles of adaptive management:
Continuous monitoring and evaluation of system performance
Regular reassessment of protection goals and strategies
Incremental implementation allowing for course corrections
Incorporation of climate change projections and uncertainty
Implementation strategies:
Phased construction approaches
Modular or removable structural elements
Integration of natural infrastructure with potential for growth or migration
Benefits of adaptive management:
Improved long-term effectiveness and cost-efficiency
Reduced risk of maladaptation to changing conditions
Enhanced ability to incorporate new technologies and knowledge
Case studies
Examining real-world examples of hard engineering projects provides valuable insights for coastal engineers
Case studies offer lessons on design, implementation, and long-term performance of different approaches
Analysis of both successes and failures informs best practices and future innovations in coastal protection
Successful implementations
Examples of effective hard engineering solutions:
The Delta Works (Netherlands): system of dams, levees, and storm surge barriers
Anse du Portier (Monaco): land reclamation project with innovative eco-designed caissons
Blackpool Sea Defenses (UK): stepped revetment with promenade integrating flood protection and public space
Key factors contributing to success:
Comprehensive planning and stakeholder engagement
Integration of multiple protection measures
Adaptive design allowing for future modifications
Consideration of both engineering and environmental objectives
Lessons learned:
Importance of long-term monitoring and maintenance programs
Benefits of combining hard engineering with ecosystem restoration
Value of public amenities in gaining community support
Failures and lessons learned
Examples of hard engineering projects with unintended consequences:
Waikiki Beach (Hawaii): chronic erosion due to seawall construction
Hallsands (UK): village destruction following harbor dredging and sea defense alterations
Surfside Beach (Texas): accelerated erosion downdrift of groin field
Common reasons for failure:
Inadequate understanding of local coastal processes
Failure to consider long-term and regional impacts
Overreliance on single protection measures
Insufficient maintenance and adaptation over time
Lessons for future projects:
Necessity of comprehensive coastal system analysis before intervention
Importance of considering cumulative and far-field effects
Value of flexible, adaptable designs in dynamic coastal environments
Need for ongoing monitoring and adaptive management
International comparisons
Examination of hard engineering approaches across different countries and coastal environments
Examples of contrasting approaches:
Netherlands: large-scale, systems-based flood protection (Delta Works)
Japan: extensive use of concrete seawalls and tetrapods
Australia: focus on beach nourishment and managed retreat in some areas
Factors influencing national strategies:
Geographical and geological characteristics
Economic resources and development patterns
Cultural attitudes towards coastal management
Regulatory frameworks and governance structures
Lessons from international comparisons:
Importance of context-specific solutions
Value of knowledge exchange and international collaboration
Need for balancing protection goals with environmental and social considerations
Potential for adapting successful strategies to local conditions
Future trends
Emerging technologies and changing environmental conditions are shaping the future of hard engineering approaches
Coastal engineers must stay informed about new developments and adapt strategies to meet evolving challenges
Integration of sustainability principles is becoming increasingly important in coastal protection projects
Innovative materials
Development of new materials to enhance performance and reduce environmental impacts
Examples of innovative materials:
Eco-concrete: incorporating recycled materials or designed to promote marine life colonization
Geosynthetics: advanced fabrics and grids for reinforcement and filtration
Biomimetic materials: inspired by natural structures for improved wave dissipation
Potential benefits of new materials:
Improved durability and reduced maintenance requirements
Enhanced ecological compatibility and habitat creation
Reduced carbon footprint and resource consumption
Challenges in adopting new materials:
Long-term performance uncertainty
Regulatory approval and standardization
Cost considerations and market availability
Climate change adaptations
Designing hard engineering structures to accommodate future climate scenarios
Key climate change considerations:
Sea-level rise projections and accelerated coastal erosion
Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events
Changes in wave climates and sediment transport patterns
Adaptation strategies:
Modular designs allowing for future height increases
Incorporation of nature-based features with potential for vertical growth
Use of adaptive pathways approach in long-term planning
Innovative concepts:
Floating breakwaters adjusting to sea-level changes
Smart structures with embedded sensors for real-time monitoring and response
Integration of renewable energy generation (wave energy converters, tidal turbines)
Sustainable design principles
Incorporating sustainability into all aspects of hard engineering projects
Key sustainable design principles:
Life cycle assessment of materials and structures
Minimization of environmental impacts during construction and operation
Integration of ecosystem services and biodiversity enhancement
Consideration of social equity and community benefits
Implementation strategies:
Use of locally sourced and recycled materials
Design for deconstruction and material reuse
Incorporation of multi-functional elements (recreation, education, habitat)
Challenges in sustainable design:
Balancing long-term sustainability with immediate protection needs
Quantifying and valuing ecosystem services in project assessments
Addressing potential conflicts between sustainability goals and traditional engineering criteria
Limitations and criticisms
Understanding the limitations of hard engineering approaches is crucial for informed decision-making in coastal management
Critical evaluation of these methods helps in developing more holistic and sustainable coastal protection strategies
Addressing criticisms can lead to improvements in design, implementation, and integration with other approaches
Aesthetic concerns
Hard engineering structures can significantly alter the natural appearance of coastlines
Common aesthetic issues:
Visual intrusion of large concrete or rock structures
Obstruction of scenic views and natural vistas
Perception of over-engineered or artificial coastal landscapes
Impacts on local character and sense of place:
Potential loss of distinctive coastal features
Alteration of traditional coastal aesthetics valued by communities
Conflicts with tourism and recreation expectations
Mitigation strategies:
Integration of structures into the natural landscape through careful design
Use of materials and colors that blend with the surrounding environment
Incorporation of public art or culturally significant elements
Creation of new viewpoints or recreational features as part of the design
Long-term effectiveness
Questions about the sustainability and adaptability of hard engineering solutions over extended periods
Challenges to long-term effectiveness:
Accelerating sea-level rise potentially outpacing design specifications
Changing wave climates and storm patterns due to climate change
Potential for increased erosion in adjacent unprotected areas
Structural degradation over time due to harsh marine environments
Limitations in addressing broader coastal system dynamics:
Inability to adapt to natural coastal evolution processes
Potential for exacerbating erosion problems in the long run
Challenges in accommodating unforeseen environmental changes
Considerations for improving long-term effectiveness:
Incorporation of adaptive design principles allowing for future modifications
Regular monitoring and maintenance programs to ensure continued performance
Integration with soft engineering approaches for more resilient protection
Unintended consequences
Hard engineering interventions can lead to unforeseen negative impacts on coastal systems
Types of unintended consequences:
Downdrift erosion caused by interruption of sediment transport
Alteration of nearshore currents affecting navigation and marine ecosystems
Increased flooding in adjacent unprotected areas
Creation of false sense of security leading to increased development in high-risk zones
Ecological impacts:
Loss of natural habitats and biodiversity
Disruption of species migration and breeding patterns
Potential for facilitating the spread of invasive species
Socioeconomic consequences:
Inequitable distribution of protection benefits and risks
Changes in property values and insurance costs
Impacts on traditional livelihoods dependent on natural coastal resources
Strategies for minimizing unintended consequences:
Comprehensive environmental impact assessments before implementation
Regional approach to coastal management considering system-wide effects
Ongoing monitoring and adaptive management to address emerging issues
Alternative approaches
Growing interest in alternatives to traditional hard engineering solutions
Soft engineering approaches:
Beach nourishment: adding sand to eroding beaches
Dune restoration: rebuilding and stabilizing natural dune systems
Managed realignment: allowing controlled flooding of low-lying areas
Nature-based solutions:
Living shorelines: combining vegetation with low-profile structures
Coral reef and oyster bed restoration for natural wave attenuation
Mangrove and salt marsh creation for storm surge protection
Non-structural measures:
Land-use planning and zoning to reduce development in high-risk areas
Early warning systems and evacuation plans
Building codes and design standards for flood-resilient structures
Integrated coastal zone management:
Holistic approach considering multiple stakeholders and ecosystem services
Combination of hard, soft, and non-structural measures
Adaptive management strategies allowing for flexibility and learning
Challenges in adopting alternatives:
Perception of lower protection levels compared to hard structures
Longer timeframes for effectiveness and visible results
Complexity in implementation requiring multi-disciplinary approaches
Need for changes in policy, funding mechanisms, and public perception