9.1 International coastal agreements

International coastal agreements form the backbone of global efforts to protect and manage shared marine resources. These agreements, ranging from bilateral to multilateral and regional to global, address various aspects of coastal protection, marine conservation, and sustainable development.

Key agreements like the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Regional Seas Programme establish frameworks for cooperation. They tackle issues such as marine pollution, fisheries management, and climate change adaptation, shaping the future of coastal resilience engineering worldwide.

Types of international agreements

• International coastal agreements play a crucial role in Coastal Resilience Engineering by establishing frameworks for cooperation and management of shared marine resources
• These agreements address various aspects of coastal protection, marine conservation, and sustainable development, forming the foundation for global efforts to enhance coastal resilience

Bilateral vs multilateral agreements

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• Bilateral agreements involve two countries collaborating on specific coastal issues (shared maritime boundaries)
• Multilateral agreements encompass multiple nations addressing broader coastal concerns (marine pollution control)
• Bilateral agreements often focus on localized challenges while multilateral agreements tackle regional or global issues
• Multilateral agreements typically require more complex negotiations and longer implementation timelines
• Examples of bilateral coastal agreements include the United States-Mexico maritime boundary treaty

Regional vs global agreements

• Regional agreements target specific geographical areas with shared coastal ecosystems (Mediterranean Sea Convention)
• Global agreements address worldwide coastal and marine issues (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)
• Regional agreements often provide more tailored solutions to area-specific challenges
• Global agreements establish overarching principles and standards for international cooperation
• Regional agreements may serve as stepping stones for broader global initiatives in coastal management

Key coastal agreements

United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea

• Comprehensive international agreement governing maritime activities and resource management
• Establishes exclusive economic zones (EEZs) extending 200 nautical miles from coastlines
• Defines rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's oceans
• Provides framework for settling disputes related to maritime boundaries and resource exploitation
• Addresses issues such as marine pollution, scientific research, and conservation of living resources

Regional Seas Programme

• United Nations Environment Programme initiative focusing on sustainable management of marine and coastal areas
• Covers 18 regions worldwide, involving over 140 countries
• Promotes ecosystem-based management approach to address environmental challenges
• Facilitates development of regional action plans and legally binding conventions
• Addresses issues such as land-based pollution, habitat destruction, and coastal development

London Convention and Protocol

• International treaty regulating dumping of wastes at sea
• Aims to prevent marine pollution from deliberate disposal of waste materials
• London Convention (1972) established general prohibitions on dumping
• London Protocol (1996) introduced more stringent regulations and precautionary approach
• Covers various types of waste including dredged material, sewage sludge, and industrial waste

Governance structures

International Maritime Organization

• Specialized United Nations agency responsible for regulating shipping industry
• Develops and maintains comprehensive regulatory framework for international shipping
• Addresses maritime safety, security, and environmental protection
• Adopts international shipping conventions and codes (SOLAS, MARPOL)
• Provides technical assistance and capacity-building programs for member states

United Nations Environment Programme

• Leading global environmental authority within the UN system
• Promotes sustainable development and addresses global environmental challenges
• Coordinates environmental activities across UN agencies and member states
• Implements programs related to climate change, ecosystem management, and environmental governance
• Supports development and implementation of international environmental agreements

Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission

• UNESCO body promoting international cooperation in marine research and observations
• Coordinates global ocean observing systems and data exchange
• Supports capacity development in marine science and technology
• Addresses issues such as ocean acidification, sea-level rise, and harmful algal blooms
• Contributes to development of early warning systems for ocean-related hazards

Coastal zone management

Integrated Coastal Zone Management

• Holistic approach to managing coastal areas considering ecological, social, and economic factors
• Promotes coordination among different sectors and stakeholders in coastal planning
• Aims to balance development needs with environmental protection and resource conservation
• Incorporates long-term perspective in decision-making processes
• Addresses issues such as coastal erosion, habitat loss, and conflicting land uses

Marine Spatial Planning

• Process of analyzing and allocating spatial and temporal distribution of human activities in marine areas
• Aims to achieve ecological, economic, and social objectives through participatory processes
• Utilizes ecosystem-based approach to manage competing uses of marine resources
• Involves creation of comprehensive plans for sustainable use of marine spaces
• Addresses conflicts between different marine activities (fishing, shipping, offshore energy)

Ecosystem-based management

• Integrated approach considering entire ecosystems, including humans, in management decisions
• Recognizes interconnectedness of ecological processes and human activities
• Aims to maintain ecosystem services while supporting sustainable human uses
• Incorporates scientific knowledge and adaptive management principles
• Addresses cumulative impacts of multiple stressors on coastal and marine ecosystems

Climate change adaptation

Paris Agreement implications

• Global treaty aimed at limiting global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels
• Requires countries to develop and implement national adaptation plans
• Emphasizes importance of building resilience in coastal communities and ecosystems
• Promotes transfer of technology and financial support for adaptation measures in developing countries
• Addresses loss and damage associated with climate change impacts in vulnerable regions

Small Island Developing States

• Group of low-lying coastal countries facing unique challenges due to climate change
• Highly vulnerable to sea-level rise, coastal erosion, and extreme weather events
• Require special attention and support in international climate negotiations
• Face challenges in implementing adaptation measures due to limited resources and capacity
• Often serve as early warning systems for global climate change impacts

Coastal adaptation strategies

• Range of measures to increase resilience of coastal areas to climate change impacts
• Include hard engineering solutions (sea walls, breakwaters) and soft approaches (beach nourishment, wetland restoration)
• Incorporate nature-based solutions (mangrove restoration, coral reef protection)
• Involve managed retreat from high-risk coastal areas in some cases
• Require integration of climate projections into coastal planning and development policies

Marine pollution control

MARPOL Convention

• International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
• Addresses various sources of marine pollution from vessels (oil, chemicals, sewage, garbage)
• Establishes regulations for ship design, equipment, and operational procedures
• Designates special areas with stricter controls on marine pollution
• Requires ships to carry certificates demonstrating compliance with MARPOL standards

Basel Convention

• International treaty controlling transboundary movements of hazardous wastes
• Aims to protect human health and environment from adverse effects of hazardous waste
• Establishes framework for environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes
• Regulates export and import of hazardous wastes between countries
• Addresses issues related to electronic waste and plastic waste in marine environments

Global Programme of Action

• Intergovernmental mechanism addressing land-based sources of marine pollution
• Aims to prevent degradation of marine environment from land-based activities
• Focuses on sewage, persistent organic pollutants, radioactive substances, heavy metals, oils, nutrients, sediment mobilization, litter, and physical alteration and destruction of habitats
• Promotes development of national and regional action plans
• Supports capacity building and technology transfer for pollution prevention and control

Biodiversity conservation

Convention on Biological Diversity

• International treaty for conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity
• Addresses marine and coastal biodiversity through various programs and initiatives
• Promotes ecosystem approach to management of marine and coastal areas
• Establishes targets for protection of marine and coastal ecosystems (Aichi Biodiversity Targets)
• Supports development of marine protected areas and other area-based conservation measures

Ramsar Convention

• International treaty for conservation and sustainable use of wetlands
• Includes coastal and marine wetlands such as mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrass beds
• Requires designation of wetlands of international importance (Ramsar sites)
• Promotes wise use of all wetlands through national plans, policies, and legislation
• Supports international cooperation for transboundary wetlands and shared wetland systems

Migratory species agreements

• International agreements focusing on conservation of migratory marine species
• Include Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and its specialized agreements
• Address conservation of marine mammals, seabirds, sea turtles, and other migratory species
• Promote cooperation among range states for protection of migratory routes and habitats
• Develop conservation and management plans for specific species or groups of species

Fisheries management

UN Fish Stocks Agreement

• Implements provisions of UN Convention on the Law of the Sea relating to conservation and management of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks
• Promotes long-term sustainability of fisheries resources in high seas
• Establishes principles for conservation and management of fish stocks
• Strengthens role of regional fisheries management organizations
• Addresses issues such as overfishing, bycatch, and ecosystem impacts of fishing

Regional Fisheries Management Organizations

• Intergovernmental bodies responsible for management of fisheries in specific regions
• Develop conservation and management measures for fish stocks in their area of competence
• Conduct scientific assessments of fish stocks and ecosystem impacts
• Allocate fishing opportunities among member states
• Implement monitoring, control, and surveillance measures to ensure compliance with regulations

Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated fishing

• Global issue threatening sustainability of fisheries and marine ecosystems
• Includes fishing without permission, misreporting catch data, and fishing in restricted areas
• Addressed through various international instruments (FAO Port State Measures Agreement)
• Requires cooperation among flag states, coastal states, and port states for effective control
• Involves use of technologies such as vessel monitoring systems and satellite surveillance

Dispute resolution mechanisms

International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea

• Specialized court established by UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
• Adjudicates disputes arising from interpretation and application of the Convention
• Has jurisdiction over various maritime issues including boundary delimitation and fisheries
• Provides advisory opinions on legal questions related to the law of the sea
• Consists of 21 independent judges elected by States Parties to the Convention

Arbitration procedures

• Alternative dispute resolution mechanism for settling international maritime disputes
• Allows parties to choose arbitrators and determine rules of procedure
• Often used for commercial maritime disputes and some inter-state conflicts
• Can be more flexible and faster than traditional court proceedings
• Includes procedures under Permanent Court of Arbitration and other specialized bodies

Compliance committees

• Established under various international environmental agreements to promote implementation
• Monitor and assess compliance of parties with their obligations under agreements
• Provide assistance and recommendations to parties facing compliance difficulties
• Can initiate non-confrontational procedures to address non-compliance issues
• Play important role in ensuring effectiveness of international coastal agreements

Implementation challenges

Capacity building in developing countries

• Crucial for effective implementation of international coastal agreements in less developed nations
• Involves transfer of knowledge, skills, and technologies related to coastal management
• Addresses gaps in scientific, technical, and institutional capacities
• Includes training programs, exchange of experts, and establishment of regional centers of excellence
• Requires sustained financial and technical support from developed countries and international organizations

Monitoring and enforcement

• Essential for ensuring compliance with international coastal agreements
• Involves use of various technologies (satellite imagery, vessel tracking systems) for surveillance
• Requires cooperation among national agencies, regional bodies, and international organizations
• Faces challenges such as limited resources, vast ocean areas, and jurisdictional issues
• Includes development of indicators and reporting mechanisms to assess progress and effectiveness

Funding mechanisms

• Critical for supporting implementation of international coastal agreements
• Include dedicated funds (Global Environment Facility, Green Climate Fund) and bilateral aid programs
• Address needs for both project implementation and ongoing management activities
• Face challenges such as insufficient resources and competing priorities
• Require innovative approaches such as blended finance and private sector engagement

Future trends

Blue economy initiatives

• Emerging concept promoting sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth
• Integrates conservation and sustainable use of marine resources with economic development
• Includes sectors such as renewable energy, sustainable fisheries, and marine biotechnology
• Requires development of new policies and governance frameworks
• Presents opportunities for innovation and job creation in coastal communities

Emerging technologies in coastal management

• Rapid advancements in technologies transforming coastal monitoring and management
• Include use of drones, artificial intelligence, and big data analytics
• Enhance capabilities for early warning systems and disaster risk reduction
• Improve understanding of complex coastal processes and ecosystem dynamics
• Raise new challenges related to data management, privacy, and cybersecurity

Climate change resilience frameworks

• Evolving approaches to integrate climate change considerations into coastal planning
• Emphasize adaptive management and flexibility in decision-making processes
• Incorporate scenario planning and risk assessment methodologies
• Address interconnected challenges of sea-level rise, extreme events, and ecosystem changes
• Require collaboration across disciplines and sectors for effective implementation