1.1 Historical development of the U.S. Congress

The U.S. Congress has evolved significantly since its establishment in 1789. From changes in election methods to the development of complex committee systems, Congress has adapted to meet the nation's changing needs and challenges over time.

Key events like the Missouri Compromise and 20th-century reforms have shaped Congress's role in American politics. The expansion of federal power, rise of political parties, and external influences continue to impact how Congress functions and interacts with other branches of government.

Evolution of Congress

Establishment and Structure

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• The U.S. Congress was established by Article I of the Constitution, which created a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives
• Initially, senators were elected by state legislatures, while representatives were directly elected by the people
  • The 17th Amendment, ratified in 1913, provided for the direct election of senators
• The number of representatives in the House is proportional to each state's population, while the Senate has equal representation with two senators per state
  • The Apportionment Act of 1911 fixed the number of representatives at 435, which remains the current number today

Organizational Developments

• Over time, Congress has evolved to include various committees, subcommittees, and leadership positions to facilitate the legislative process and provide oversight
• The committee system allows for specialization and division of labor among members of Congress
  • Standing committees have jurisdiction over specific policy areas (agriculture, education, etc.)
  • Select committees are formed to investigate specific issues or events (Watergate, 9/11, etc.)
• Leadership positions, such as Speaker of the House and Senate Majority Leader, help coordinate the legislative agenda and manage the proceedings of each chamber
  • Party leadership also plays a significant role in shaping the priorities and strategies of each caucus

Key Events in Congressional Development

Foundational Legislation and Compromises

• The First Congress (1789-1791) established many of the basic procedures and structures that still govern Congress today, such as the committee system and the rules of debate
• The Missouri Compromise of 1820 maintained the balance between free and slave states in the Senate, highlighting the role of Congress in managing sectional tensions
  • The compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, preserving the delicate balance in the Senate
• The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 aimed to reduce patronage and create a merit-based system for federal employment, affecting the role of Congress in appointing government officials
  • The act established the Civil Service Commission to oversee competitive exams for federal jobs

20th Century Reforms and Resolutions

• The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 established the executive budget process and the Bureau of the Budget (now the Office of Management and Budget), enhancing Congress's role in fiscal policy
  • The act required the president to submit an annual budget proposal to Congress for approval
• The Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946 streamlined the committee system, increased staff support, and strengthened congressional oversight of the executive branch
  • The act reduced the number of standing committees and clarified their jurisdictions
  • It also authorized the hiring of professional staff to assist committees in their work
• The War Powers Resolution of 1973 sought to limit the president's ability to commit U.S. forces to armed conflict without congressional approval, asserting Congress's role in foreign policy and military action
  • The resolution requires the president to consult with Congress and seek authorization for prolonged military engagements

Historical Influences on Congress

Expansion of Federal Government and Oversight

• The expansion of the federal government's role during the New Deal era and beyond led to the growth of congressional staff, the development of specialized committees, and increased oversight responsibilities for Congress
  • New Deal programs (Social Security, unemployment insurance, etc.) required more congressional oversight and legislation
  • The growth of the federal bureaucracy necessitated more specialized committees and staff expertise to effectively oversee executive agencies

Political Parties and Polarization

• The rise of political parties and their influence on congressional organization and voting patterns has shaped the power dynamics within Congress and its relationship with the executive branch
  • Party loyalty often trumps institutional loyalty, leading to more partisan voting and less bipartisan cooperation
• Polarization and partisanship have increased in recent decades, affecting the ability of Congress to find consensus and pass legislation, as well as its public approval ratings
  • Ideological differences between the parties have widened, making compromise more difficult
  • Divided government, with different parties controlling the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress, has become more common

External Influences and Power Dynamics

• The advent of mass media, particularly television, has changed the way Congress communicates with the public and has influenced the behavior and strategies of individual members
  • Members of Congress often use media appearances to raise their profiles and influence public opinion
  • The 24-hour news cycle and social media have accelerated the pace of political communication and increased pressure on Congress to respond quickly to events
• The growing influence of interest groups, lobbying, and campaign finance has raised concerns about the impact of money on congressional decision-making and the balance of power between Congress and special interests
  • Interest groups and political action committees (PACs) seek to influence legislation through campaign contributions and lobbying efforts
  • The cost of congressional campaigns has skyrocketed, making members more dependent on outside funding sources
• Shifts in the balance of power between Congress and the executive branch have occurred throughout history, with periods of congressional assertiveness and periods of executive dominance, affecting the overall functioning of the federal government
  • The post-World War II era saw the rise of the "imperial presidency," with the executive branch gaining more power in areas like foreign policy and national security
  • The 1970s saw a resurgence of congressional power, with the passage of reforms like the War Powers Resolution and the Budget and Impoundment Control Act