🦢Constitutional Law I Unit 10 – Judicial Branch: Separation of Powers

Key Concepts and Principles

• Separation of powers divides the federal government into three distinct branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) to prevent the concentration of power
• Judicial review grants the Supreme Court the power to review and invalidate laws or executive actions that violate the Constitution
  • Established in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison (1803)
• Judicial independence ensures that judges can make decisions based on the law and Constitution without undue influence from other branches or external pressures
• Jurisdiction refers to the authority of a court to hear and decide cases, which can be limited by factors such as geography or subject matter
• Standing requires that a party must have suffered a concrete injury directly related to the case in order to bring a lawsuit
• Justiciability doctrines, such as the political question doctrine and mootness, limit the types of cases the federal courts can hear
• Stare decisis is the principle that courts should follow precedent when deciding similar cases to maintain consistency and predictability in the law

Historical Context

• The Framers of the Constitution sought to create a government with divided powers to prevent tyranny and protect individual liberties
  • Influenced by philosophers such as Montesquieu and Locke who advocated for the separation of powers
• The Articles of Confederation, the nation's first governing document, lacked a strong judiciary, leading to problems with enforcing laws and resolving disputes between states
• The Constitutional Convention of 1787 established the judicial branch as one of three co-equal branches of government
• The Judiciary Act of 1789 established the structure of the federal court system, including the Supreme Court and lower federal courts
• Early landmark cases, such as Marbury v. Madison (1803) and McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), established the power of judicial review and the supremacy of federal law over state law
• The number of Supreme Court justices has changed over time, with the Judiciary Act of 1869 setting the current number at nine

Constitutional Framework

• Article III of the Constitution establishes the judicial branch and grants it the power to interpret and apply the law
  • Defines the jurisdiction of the federal courts
  • Provides for the appointment of judges by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate
• The Supremacy Clause (Article VI, Clause 2) establishes that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the "supreme law of the land" and take precedence over state laws
• The Due Process Clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments protect individuals from arbitrary government action and ensure fair legal proceedings
• The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination and requires that the government treat all individuals equally under the law
• The Bill of Rights, particularly the First, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments, protects individual rights and liberties in the context of judicial proceedings
• Constitutional amendments, such as the Eleventh Amendment (sovereign immunity) and the Twenty-seventh Amendment (Congressional pay raises), have impacted the judiciary's powers and functions

Structure and Functions of the Judicial Branch

• The Supreme Court is the highest court in the federal judiciary and has the final say on matters of federal law and the Constitution
  • Composed of nine justices, including the Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices
  • Has original jurisdiction in cases involving disputes between states or cases involving ambassadors
• The lower federal courts, established by Congress, include the U.S. District Courts (trial courts) and the U.S. Courts of Appeals (appellate courts)
  • U.S. District Courts have original jurisdiction in most federal cases
  • U.S. Courts of Appeals hear appeals from the district courts and certain administrative agencies
• Specialized federal courts, such as the U.S. Court of Federal Claims and the U.S. Tax Court, have jurisdiction over specific types of cases
• The judicial branch interprets the law, determines the constitutionality of laws and executive actions, and resolves disputes between parties
• Federal judges are appointed for life tenure, subject to good behavior, to ensure judicial independence
• The judicial branch plays a crucial role in protecting individual rights and liberties, ensuring due process, and maintaining the rule of law

Landmark Cases

• Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the principle of judicial review, asserting the Supreme Court's power to declare laws unconstitutional
• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) affirmed the supremacy of federal law over state law and the implied powers of Congress under the Necessary and Proper Clause
• Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) broadly interpreted the Commerce Clause, granting Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce
• Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) held that African Americans were not citizens and that Congress could not ban slavery in the territories, a decision widely criticized and later overturned by the Fourteenth Amendment
• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine, a decision later overturned by Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
• Korematsu v. United States (1944) upheld the constitutionality of Japanese American internment during World War II, a decision now widely regarded as a failure to protect civil liberties
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954) overturned Plessy v. Ferguson and held that racial segregation in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
• Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) held that the Sixth Amendment requires states to provide attorneys for criminal defendants who cannot afford them
• Roe v. Wade (1973) recognized a constitutional right to privacy and struck down state laws banning abortion, a decision that remains controversial and has been modified by subsequent cases

Checks and Balances

• The judicial branch acts as a check on the legislative and executive branches through the power of judicial review
  • Can declare laws, executive orders, and other government actions unconstitutional
• The President nominates federal judges, including Supreme Court Justices, but the Senate must confirm these appointments, providing a check on the President's power
• Congress has the power to create lower federal courts, determine their jurisdiction, and set the number of Supreme Court Justices
  • Attempted to exert this power in the Judiciary Act of 1801 and Franklin D. Roosevelt's "court-packing" plan
• The President and Congress can influence the judiciary through the appointment process, as the political and judicial philosophies of judges can shape their decisions
• The impeachment process allows Congress to remove federal judges, including Supreme Court Justices, for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors"
  • Only one Supreme Court Justice, Samuel Chase, has ever been impeached (1804), and he was acquitted by the Senate
• The Constitution can be amended to overturn Supreme Court decisions or change the powers and jurisdiction of the federal courts
• The judicial branch relies on the executive branch to enforce its decisions, as it lacks the power to enforce its rulings independently

Current Debates and Controversies

• The role of the judiciary in interpreting the Constitution and the proper scope of judicial review continue to be debated
  • Originalism vs. living constitutionalism
  • Judicial activism vs. judicial restraint
• The politicization of the judicial appointment process, particularly for Supreme Court Justices, has led to increased partisan tensions and confirmation battles
• The impact of the judiciary on controversial social and political issues, such as abortion, same-sex marriage, and affirmative action, has led to debates about the proper role of the courts in shaping public policy
• The use of judicial doctrines, such as standing and the political question doctrine, to limit the types of cases the federal courts can hear has been criticized by some as a way to avoid addressing important issues
• The influence of money and special interests on judicial elections at the state level has raised concerns about the impartiality and independence of the judiciary
• The lack of diversity in the federal judiciary, particularly in terms of race, gender, and professional background, has led to calls for a more representative bench
• The increasing use of emergency petitions and the "shadow docket" by the Supreme Court to make important decisions without full briefing or oral argument has drawn criticism

Practical Implications

• The decisions of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts can have significant impacts on individuals, businesses, and society as a whole
  • Rulings on issues such as civil rights, criminal procedure, and environmental regulation can affect millions of people
• The interpretation of the Constitution by the courts can shape the balance of power between the federal government and the states, as well as between the branches of government
• The judiciary plays a crucial role in protecting individual rights and liberties, particularly for minority groups and unpopular individuals
  • Landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education and Obergefell v. Hodges have led to major social and political changes
• The courts' rulings on issues like voting rights, redistricting, and campaign finance can have significant impacts on the political process and electoral outcomes
• The judiciary's interpretation of laws and regulations can affect the economy, businesses, and consumers
  • Decisions on issues like antitrust, intellectual property, and labor law can have far-reaching consequences
• The public's perception of the legitimacy and impartiality of the judiciary is essential for maintaining the rule of law and the stability of the government
  • Controversial decisions and perceived political bias can undermine public trust in the courts
• Understanding the role and powers of the judiciary is crucial for lawyers, policymakers, and engaged citizens in order to effectively navigate the legal system and advocate for change