🦢Constitutional Law I Unit 9 – Executive Branch in Separation of Powers

Key Concepts and Principles

• Separation of powers divides the federal government into three distinct branches: executive, legislative, and judicial
• Checks and balances system ensures each branch can limit the powers of the others, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful
• Executive branch headed by the President of the United States who is elected to a four-year term and can serve a maximum of two terms
• President serves as both head of state and head of government
• Executive power includes the authority to enforce laws, conduct foreign policy, and serve as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces
• Unitary executive theory holds that the President possesses complete control over the executive branch
• Signing statements are written comments issued by the President upon signing a bill into law, often used to express concerns or interpretations of the legislation
• Executive privilege refers to the President's ability to withhold information from Congress or the courts, typically related to national security or diplomatic concerns

Historical Context and Development

• Articles of Confederation (1781-1789) established a weak central government with no executive branch
• Constitutional Convention of 1787 created the office of the President as part of a stronger federal government
• Federalist Papers, particularly Federalist No. 70 written by Alexander Hamilton, argued for a strong executive branch led by a single individual
• George Washington's presidency (1789-1797) set important precedents, such as the two-term limit and the use of the veto power
• Tenure of Office Act (1867) restricted the President's power to remove certain office-holders without the consent of the Senate, later repealed in 1887
• 22nd Amendment (1951) formally limited presidents to two full terms in office
• Expansion of executive power during the 20th century, particularly during times of war or national crisis (World War II, Cold War)
• Watergate scandal (1972-1974) led to increased scrutiny of executive power and the passage of reforms like the War Powers Resolution (1973)

Executive Powers and Limitations

• Article II of the Constitution vests executive power in the President
• President has the power to nominate federal judges, cabinet members, and other high-ranking officials, subject to Senate confirmation
• Commander-in-Chief of the military, with the authority to direct troops and make strategic decisions
• Conducts foreign policy and negotiates treaties, which must be ratified by a two-thirds majority in the Senate
• Grants pardons and reprieves for federal crimes, except in cases of impeachment
• Delivers the State of the Union address to Congress annually
• Limitations on executive power include:
  • Cannot declare war without Congressional approval
  • Cannot spend money without Congressional appropriation
  • Subject to checks by the legislative and judicial branches
  • Can be impeached and removed from office for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors"

Interaction with Legislative Branch

• President can veto legislation passed by Congress, which can be overridden by a two-thirds majority in both the House and Senate
• Pocket veto occurs when the President takes no action on a bill within ten days of Congress adjourning, effectively killing the legislation
• President can call special sessions of Congress and adjourn Congress under certain circumstances
• Executive branch agencies and departments are created by Congress and subject to Congressional oversight
• President submits an annual budget proposal to Congress, which then appropriates funds
• Appointment of executive branch officials, such as Cabinet members, requires Senate confirmation
• Congress can override executive orders and regulations through legislation
• Impeachment process allows Congress to remove the President, Vice President, or other federal officials for serious misconduct

Interaction with Judicial Branch

• President nominates federal judges, including Supreme Court Justices, subject to Senate confirmation
• Judicial review allows federal courts to declare executive actions unconstitutional
• Courts can issue injunctions to block executive policies or actions
• Executive branch agencies can interpret and apply laws, but their decisions are subject to judicial review
• President's pardon power does not extend to state crimes or civil cases
• Executive privilege can be challenged in court, and the Supreme Court has the final say on its validity
• Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the principle of judicial review, allowing courts to strike down executive actions that violate the Constitution

Executive Orders and Directives

• Executive orders are legally binding directives issued by the President to federal agencies
• Used to manage the operations of the executive branch and implement policies without Congressional approval
• Examples include:
  • Emancipation Proclamation (1863) issued by Abraham Lincoln
  • Executive Order 9066 (1942) issued by Franklin D. Roosevelt, authorizing the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II
  • Executive Order 10730 (1957) issued by Dwight D. Eisenhower, sending federal troops to enforce school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas
• Presidential directives, such as national security directives or presidential memoranda, provide guidance to executive agencies on specific issues
• Executive agreements are international agreements made by the President without Senate ratification, often used for routine or short-term matters
• Signing statements are written comments issued by the President when signing a bill into law, sometimes used to express constitutional objections or interpretations

Contemporary Issues and Debates

• Scope of executive power in national security and foreign policy, particularly in the context of the War on Terror
• Use of executive orders to bypass Congress on controversial issues like immigration, climate change, and gun control
• Role of executive privilege in shielding the President and executive branch officials from Congressional oversight
• Politicization of the Department of Justice and concerns about the independence of law enforcement
• Impeachment proceedings against Presidents Richard Nixon (resigned before impeachment) and Bill Clinton (impeached but not removed)
• Debates over the unitary executive theory and the extent of Presidential control over the executive branch
• Controversies surrounding the appointment of federal judges and the role of ideology in the confirmation process
• Tensions between the President and Congress over war powers, particularly in the context of undeclared wars and military interventions

Case Law and Landmark Decisions

• Myers v. United States (1926): Upheld the President's power to remove executive branch officials without Congressional approval
• Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952): Limited the President's power to seize private property without Congressional authorization
• United States v. Nixon (1974): Recognized the existence of executive privilege but held that it is not absolute and must yield to the needs of a criminal investigation
• Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha (1983): Struck down the legislative veto, affirming the separation of powers and the President's role in the legislative process
• Morrison v. Olson (1988): Upheld the constitutionality of the independent counsel law, which allowed for investigations of executive branch officials
• Clinton v. City of New York (1998): Struck down the line-item veto as unconstitutional, preserving the balance of power between the President and Congress
• Hamdi v. Rumsfeld (2004): Held that U.S. citizens designated as enemy combatants have the right to challenge their detention in court
• Boumediene v. Bush (2008): Ruled that Guantanamo Bay detainees have the right to habeas corpus and can challenge their detention in federal court