🕵️Crime and Human Development Unit 1 – Theories of Crime Causation

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Criminology studies the causes, prevention, and control of criminal behavior
• Crime refers to acts prohibited by law and punishable by sanctions
• Deviance encompasses behaviors that violate social norms (shoplifting, vandalism)
• Theories of crime causation attempt to explain why individuals engage in criminal behavior
  • Aim to identify risk factors and protective factors
• Etiology is the study of the causes or origins of a phenomenon (crime)
• Criminogenic factors increase the likelihood of criminal behavior (poverty, low self-control)
• Protective factors reduce the risk of engaging in crime (strong social bonds, prosocial attitudes)

Historical Context of Crime Theories

• Early explanations of crime focused on religious and supernatural causes (demonic possession, sin)
• Classical School of Criminology emerged in the 18th century
  • Emphasized free will and rational choice in criminal behavior
  • Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham were key figures
• Positivist School of Criminology developed in the 19th century
  • Focused on scientific study of crime and its causes
  • Cesare Lombroso proposed the concept of the "born criminal"
• 20th century saw the rise of sociological theories (social disorganization, strain theory)
• Recent decades have witnessed the development of integrated theories and biosocial approaches

Major Criminological Perspectives

• Classical perspective views crime as a rational choice based on weighing costs and benefits
• Positivist perspective emphasizes the influence of internal and external factors on criminal behavior
• Biological perspective focuses on genetic, neurological, and physiological factors
• Psychological perspective examines personality traits, cognitive processes, and mental disorders
• Sociological perspective considers the impact of social structures, institutions, and interactions
  • Includes theories such as social disorganization, strain, and social learning
• Critical perspective analyzes the role of power, inequality, and social conflict in shaping crime
• Feminist perspective examines gender differences in crime and the gendered nature of the justice system

Biological Theories of Crime

• Lombroso's theory of the "born criminal" suggested that criminals possess distinct physical features
• Genetic theories propose that criminal tendencies may be inherited
  • Studies on twin concordance and adoption have explored genetic influences
• Neurological theories examine the role of brain structure and function in criminal behavior
  • Abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system have been implicated
• Hormonal theories investigate the relationship between testosterone levels and aggression
• Evolutionary theories suggest that some criminal behaviors may have adaptive value in certain contexts
• Biosocial theories recognize the interaction between biological factors and environmental influences

Psychological Theories of Crime

• Psychodynamic theories, based on Freudian ideas, emphasize unconscious conflicts and early experiences
• Personality theories focus on traits such as impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and lack of empathy
  • Eysenck's theory proposes that criminals have high levels of extraversion and neuroticism
• Cognitive theories examine decision-making processes, moral reasoning, and criminal thinking patterns
• Learning theories, such as Bandura's social learning theory, emphasize the role of observation and imitation
• Developmental theories, like Moffitt's dual taxonomy, distinguish between life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited offenders
• Mental disorder theories explore the link between psychiatric conditions (schizophrenia, antisocial personality disorder) and crime

Sociological Theories of Crime

• Social disorganization theory links crime to neighborhood characteristics (poverty, residential instability)
• Strain theories, such as Merton's anomie theory, focus on the gap between cultural goals and legitimate means
  • Agnew's general strain theory expands sources of strain beyond economic factors
• Social learning theory, developed by Akers, emphasizes the role of peer influence and reinforcement
• Social control theory, proposed by Hirschi, examines the strength of an individual's bonds to society
• Labeling theory suggests that societal reactions to deviance can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy
• Conflict theories, rooted in Marxist ideas, view crime as a result of power struggles and social inequalities
  • Highlight the role of the criminal justice system in maintaining the status quo

Environmental and Situational Factors

• Routine activities theory, developed by Cohen and Felson, focuses on the convergence of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and absence of capable guardians
• Crime pattern theory examines how the built environment influences criminal opportunities
  • Considers the role of crime generators (shopping malls) and crime attractors (drug markets)
• Situational crime prevention aims to reduce opportunities for crime through environmental design (CPTED)
  • Includes strategies such as target hardening, access control, and surveillance
• Broken windows theory, proposed by Wilson and Kelling, suggests that visible signs of disorder can lead to more serious crime
• Environmental criminology investigates the spatial and temporal distribution of crime
  • Utilizes crime mapping and hot spot analysis to identify high-crime areas

Integrated Theories and Modern Approaches

• Developmental and life-course theories examine how criminal behavior evolves over an individual's lifespan
  • Sampson and Laub's age-graded theory of informal social control emphasizes turning points
• Biosocial theories integrate biological and environmental factors to explain criminal behavior
  • Consider the interplay between genetic predispositions and social influences
• Rational choice theory, derived from the classical perspective, views crime as a purposeful behavior based on cost-benefit analysis
• Situational action theory, developed by Wikström, focuses on the interaction between an individual's propensity and exposure to criminogenic settings
• Developmental and life-course criminology (DLC) examines the onset, persistence, and desistance of offending over time
  • Utilizes longitudinal studies to identify risk and protective factors at different life stages

Critiques and Limitations of Crime Theories

• Reductionism criticism argues that theories oversimplify complex phenomena by focusing on single factors
• Determinism criticism suggests that some theories deny individual agency and free will
• Generalizability issues arise when theories are based on limited samples or specific contexts
  • Theories developed in Western societies may not apply to other cultures
• Empirical validity concerns the extent to which theories are supported by research evidence
  • Some theories lack robust empirical support or have mixed findings
• Policy implications criticism highlights the potential misuse of theories to justify punitive or discriminatory practices
• Intersectionality criticism argues that theories often fail to consider the intersections of race, class, and gender

Practical Applications in Criminal Justice

• Risk assessment tools, informed by crime theories, are used to predict the likelihood of recidivism
  • Examples include the Level of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R) and the COMPAS tool
• Evidence-based practices, derived from theoretical principles, guide interventions and rehabilitation programs
  • Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) addresses criminal thinking patterns
• Crime prevention strategies, such as situational crime prevention, are based on environmental theories
  • Target hardening measures (locks, alarms) aim to reduce opportunities for crime
• Policing strategies, like problem-oriented policing, draw on theories of crime concentration and hot spots
• Sentencing policies, such as the use of risk-need-responsivity (RNR) principles, consider criminogenic needs identified by theories
• Restorative justice approaches, influenced by social control and labeling theories, emphasize repairing harm and reintegrating offenders