🇲🇽History of Aztec Mexico and New Spain Unit 13 – Colonial Legacy: Conquest to New Spain

Pre-Conquest Aztec Society

• Highly structured society organized around city-states (altepetl) ruled by kings (tlatoani)
• Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire, built on an island in Lake Texcoco
  • Impressive architecture including the Templo Mayor, a large pyramid with twin temples
  • Extensive canal system and causeways connecting the city to the mainland
• Complex social hierarchy with the nobility (pipiltin) at the top and commoners (macehualtin) at the bottom
• Specialized craftsmen created intricate artworks (gold, silver, and feather work)
• Advanced agricultural techniques including chinampas, artificial islands used for crop cultivation
• Polytheistic religion with gods representing natural forces and human activities (Huitzilopochtli, Tlaloc, Quetzalcoatl)
• Practiced human sacrifice as a way to appease the gods and maintain cosmic order

Spanish Arrival and Initial Contact

• Christopher Columbus's voyages to the Americas in the late 15th century sparked Spanish interest in exploration and conquest
• Hernán Cortés landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519 with a small force of conquistadors
• Encountered the Totonac people who were subject to Aztec rule and formed an alliance against the Aztecs
• Malintzin (La Malinche), an indigenous woman gifted to Cortés, served as a translator and cultural intermediary
• Cortés and his men marched inland towards Tenochtitlan, engaging in battles with local peoples along the way
• Moctezuma II, the Aztec emperor, initially welcomed Cortés believing he might be the returning god Quetzalcoatl
  • Allowed the Spanish to enter Tenochtitlan peacefully in November 1519

Conquest of Tenochtitlan

• Tensions escalated between the Spanish and Aztecs due to cultural misunderstandings and Spanish demands for gold
• Cortés took Moctezuma II hostage in an attempt to control the city
• Spanish massacred Aztec nobles during a religious festival, leading to open warfare
• Moctezuma II killed during a confrontation between the Spanish and Aztecs
• Cortés and his forces driven out of the city during the Noche Triste (Night of Sorrows) in June 1520
• Spanish regrouped and formed alliances with other indigenous groups, notably the Tlaxcalans
• Siege of Tenochtitlan began in May 1521, lasting for several months
  • Spanish cut off the city's water supply and food sources
  • Smallpox epidemic decimated the Aztec population
• Tenochtitlan fell to the Spanish in August 1521, marking the end of the Aztec Empire

Establishment of New Spain

• Spanish claimed the conquered territories for the Crown, establishing the Viceroyalty of New Spain
• Mexico City built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, becoming the capital of New Spain
• Spanish imposed their political, economic, and religious systems on the indigenous populations
• Encomienda system granted Spanish conquistadors the right to indigenous labor and tribute
  • Led to widespread abuse and exploitation of native peoples
• Catholic missionaries (Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits) arrived to convert indigenous populations to Christianity
• Indigenous peoples forced to adopt Spanish language, customs, and religion
• Merging of Spanish and indigenous cultures created a new, syncretic society

Colonial Administration and Governance

• New Spain governed by a viceroy appointed by the Spanish Crown
  • Viceroy served as the king's representative and held executive, legislative, and judicial powers
• Audiencia, a high court, served as an advisory body to the viceroy and acted as a check on his power
• Colonial bureaucracy included various officials (oidores, corregidores, alcaldes mayores) who administered local areas
• Indigenous nobility initially incorporated into the colonial governance structure
  • Allowed to maintain some traditional roles and privileges in exchange for cooperation
• Cabildos, municipal councils, established in Spanish settlements to handle local affairs
• Catholic Church played a significant role in colonial governance and society
  • Bishops and clergy held influential positions and oversaw religious and educational institutions

Social and Racial Hierarchies

• Spanish colonial society characterized by a complex caste system based on race and birthplace
• Peninsulares, Spaniards born in Spain, occupied the highest social and political positions
• Criollos, people of Spanish descent born in the Americas, held secondary status but still enjoyed privileges
• Mestizos, individuals of mixed Spanish and indigenous ancestry, formed an intermediate social class
  • Mestizaje, the mixing of Spanish and indigenous peoples, became increasingly common over time
• Indigenous peoples occupied the lower rungs of the social hierarchy
  • Forced to pay tribute, provide labor, and adopt Spanish customs and religion
• Africans brought to New Spain as slaves, primarily to work on sugar plantations and in mines
• Complex set of racial categories (mulatto, zambo, pardo) used to classify people of mixed African, European, and indigenous descent
• Social mobility limited, but some individuals managed to improve their status through wealth, education, or military service

Economic Transformations

• Spanish introduced new crops (wheat, sugarcane, citrus fruits) and livestock (cattle, sheep, horses) to Mexico
  • Transformed the agricultural landscape and diet of the indigenous population
• Encomienda system and later the repartimiento system provided Spanish settlers with indigenous labor
  • Indigenous peoples forced to work in agriculture, mining, and textile production
• Silver mines (Zacatecas, Guanajuato) became a major source of wealth for the Spanish Crown
  • Indigenous and African slave labor used extensively in the mines
• Haciendas, large landed estates, emerged as a dominant form of agricultural production
  • Operated by Spanish and criollo landowners using indigenous and mestizo labor
• Mercury amalgamation process introduced to improve silver extraction efficiency
• Colonial economy oriented towards exporting raw materials (silver, cochineal, hides) to Europe
• Trade regulated through the fleet system (Flota de Indias) and the Manila Galleon trade route
• Economic policies (mercantilism, monopolies) designed to benefit the Spanish Crown and merchants

Cultural and Religious Changes

• Catholic missionaries worked to convert indigenous populations to Christianity
  • Established missions, monasteries, and schools to spread the faith
• Syncretism between Catholic and indigenous religious beliefs and practices developed
  • Indigenous deities and rituals incorporated into Catholic festivals and iconography
• Spanish language imposed as the official language of government, trade, and education
  • Indigenous languages (Nahuatl, Maya) continued to be spoken in local communities
• European art styles (Baroque, Churrigueresque) introduced and adapted in colonial architecture and art
  • Indigenous artists incorporated pre-Columbian motifs and techniques into their work
• Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún compiled the Florentine Codex, documenting Aztec history and culture
• Indigenous writers (Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc, Domingo Francisco de San Antón Muñón Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin) recorded their perspectives on the conquest and colonial era
• Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, a self-taught scholar and nun, became a prominent figure in colonial literature
• Culinary traditions blended Spanish and indigenous ingredients and techniques (mole, tamales, chocolate)

Legacy and Long-Term Impacts

• Demographic collapse of the indigenous population due to disease, warfare, and exploitation
  • Pre-Columbian population of Mexico estimated at 25 million, reduced to around 1 million by the mid-17th century
• Mestizaje led to the creation of a new, mixed-race population that became the majority in Mexico
• Spanish language and Catholicism became integral parts of Mexican culture and identity
• Colonial economic patterns (export of raw materials, import of manufactured goods) persisted after independence
• Inequalities and racial hierarchies established during the colonial era have had lasting effects on Mexican society
• Indigenous peoples continue to face marginalization and discrimination
• Colonial architecture, art, and literature serve as important cultural heritage and tourist attractions
• Mexican cuisine, a fusion of indigenous and Spanish influences, has gained global popularity
• Legacy of the conquest and colonization continues to shape discussions of national identity, social justice, and cultural diversity in contemporary Mexico