12.1 Diplomacy and International Relations

The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 established modern diplomacy and sovereignty. It ended the Thirty Years' War and recognized states' rights to control internal affairs without outside interference. This laid the groundwork for international relations based on state equality and non-intervention.

Diplomacy evolved with permanent ambassadors representing state interests abroad. The balance of power concept emerged, with states forming alliances to prevent any single power from dominating. Realpolitik and raison d'état prioritized state interests over moral concerns in foreign policy.

Foundations of Modern Diplomacy

Treaty of Westphalia and Sovereignty

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• Treaty of Westphalia (1648) ended the Thirty Years' War and established the modern system of sovereign states
  • Recognized the right of each state to control its own internal affairs without interference from other states
  • Laid the foundation for the concept of sovereignty, the supreme authority of a state over its territory and people
• Sovereignty became a fundamental principle of international relations
  • States are equal in legal terms, regardless of their size or power
  • No state has the right to intervene in the internal affairs of another state
  • States have the right to enter into treaties and alliances with other states

Diplomatic Practices and Ambassadors

• Ambassadors became the primary means of conducting diplomacy between states
  • Permanent diplomatic representatives residing in foreign capitals
  • Responsible for negotiating treaties, gathering intelligence, and representing their state's interests
• Diplomacy evolved into a professional practice with established protocols and procedures
  • Diplomatic immunity granted to ambassadors to ensure their safety and ability to carry out their duties
  • Encryption and secret communication methods used to protect sensitive information (cipher codes)

Realpolitik and Power Politics

Balance of Power and Alliances

• Balance of power became a key concept in European politics
  • No single state should become powerful enough to dominate others
  • States formed alliances to maintain the balance and prevent any one state from achieving hegemony
• Alliances were a crucial tool in the balance of power system
  • Defensive alliances formed to protect states against aggression (Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy)
  • Offensive alliances formed to pursue common goals or counter rival alliances (Franco-Russian Alliance)

Raison d'état and Realpolitik

• Raison d'état, or "reason of state," prioritized the interests of the state above all else
  • Justification for actions that might be considered immoral or unethical in pursuit of state power (wars, annexations)
  • Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of France (1624-1642), epitomized this approach in his foreign policy
• Realpolitik, or "realistic politics," emphasized practical considerations over ideological or moral concerns
  • Focus on power, national interest, and strategic advantage rather than abstract principles
  • Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Prussia/Germany (1862-1890), a prime example of a practitioner of Realpolitik (unification of Germany through "blood and iron")