⚔️Early Modern Europe – 1450 to 1750 Unit 2 – New Monarchies and Nation-States

Key Concepts and Definitions

• New Monarchies: Centralized states that emerged in Western Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by strong monarchical authority and the decline of feudalism
• Nation-States: Political entities with defined borders, a centralized government, and a shared sense of national identity among its citizens
• Absolutism: A system of government in which the monarch holds supreme authority and power, often justified by the concept of divine right
• Divine Right of Kings: The belief that monarchs derive their authority directly from God and are accountable only to God, not to their subjects or any earthly institution
• Centralization: The process of consolidating power and authority within a single, central government, often at the expense of local or regional authorities
  • Involves the creation of a bureaucracy, standing army, and unified legal system under the control of the monarch
• Sovereignty: The supreme authority of a state to govern itself and its territory without interference from external powers or internal rivals
• Feudalism: A decentralized political and social system based on the exchange of land for military service and loyalty, prevalent in medieval Europe before the rise of New Monarchies

Historical Context and Background

• The Late Middle Ages (14th and 15th centuries) were marked by various crises, including the Black Death, the Hundred Years' War, and the decline of the Catholic Church's authority
• These crises weakened the feudal system and traditional sources of power, creating opportunities for monarchs to consolidate their authority
• The Renaissance, which began in Italy and spread throughout Europe, promoted new ideas about individualism, humanism, and the role of the state
  • Renaissance thinkers challenged the medieval worldview and encouraged the development of strong, centralized states
• The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther in 1517, challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to religious conflicts that further destabilized the political landscape
• The discovery of the New World and the establishment of overseas empires provided new sources of wealth and power for European monarchs
• The development of gunpowder and professional standing armies gave monarchs a military advantage over feudal lords and rival powers

Rise of New Monarchies

• New Monarchies emerged in several Western European countries, including France, England, and Spain, during the 15th and 16th centuries
• Monarchs sought to centralize power by weakening the influence of the nobility, clergy, and rival institutions
• The French monarchy, under kings like Louis XI and Francis I, gradually expanded its authority and territory through diplomacy, warfare, and strategic marriages
  • Louis XI (r. 1461-1483) subdued powerful nobles and incorporated their lands into the royal domain
  • Francis I (r. 1515-1547) centralized the French state by creating a professional bureaucracy and patronizing the arts and sciences
• The English monarchy, following the Wars of the Roses, was strengthened under the Tudor dynasty, particularly during the reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII
  • Henry VII (r. 1485-1509) ended the Wars of the Roses, centralized power, and promoted economic growth
  • Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) broke with the Catholic Church and established the Church of England, consolidating both political and religious authority
• The Spanish monarchy, united under the Catholic Monarchs Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, became a major European power
  • Isabella and Ferdinand completed the Reconquista, expelling the last Muslim rulers from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492
  • They sponsored Christopher Columbus's voyages, leading to the establishment of a vast overseas empire

Characteristics of Nation-States

• Centralized government: Power is concentrated in the hands of the monarch and a professional bureaucracy, rather than distributed among feudal lords
• Defined borders: Nation-states have clearly demarcated territories over which they exercise sovereignty
• Shared national identity: Citizens of a nation-state often share a common language, culture, and sense of belonging to a single political community
• Professional standing army: Nation-states maintain a permanent, centrally-controlled military force loyal to the monarch rather than to individual nobles
• Unified legal system: Nation-states establish a standardized set of laws and courts that apply throughout the territory, replacing the patchwork of feudal jurisdictions
• Taxation: Monarchs develop more efficient systems of taxation to fund their centralized administrations, standing armies, and other state functions
• Diplomacy: Nation-states engage in formal diplomatic relations with other states, establishing embassies, negotiating treaties, and forming alliances

Major Figures and Rulers

• Louis XI of France (r. 1461-1483): Known as the "Spider King" for his cunning and ruthless approach to centralizing power and subduing the French nobility
• Henry VII of England (r. 1485-1509): Founder of the Tudor dynasty, ended the Wars of the Roses and laid the foundations for a centralized English state
• Isabella I of Castile (r. 1474-1504) and Ferdinand II of Aragon (r. 1479-1516): The Catholic Monarchs who united Spain, completed the Reconquista, and sponsored the voyages of Christopher Columbus
• Henry VIII of England (r. 1509-1547): Broke with the Catholic Church and established the Church of England, consolidating both political and religious authority
• Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1519-1556): Ruled over a vast empire that included the Holy Roman Empire, the Spanish Empire, and the Habsburg Netherlands
• Elizabeth I of England (r. 1558-1603): The last monarch of the Tudor dynasty, presided over a period of political stability, economic growth, and cultural flourishing (the Elizabethan era)
• Philip II of Spain (r. 1556-1598): Son of Charles V, ruled over the Spanish Empire at its height, leading to increased centralization and religious uniformity

Political and Economic Changes

• The decline of feudalism: As monarchs centralized power, the feudal system based on the exchange of land for military service and loyalty gradually eroded
• The rise of professional bureaucracies: Monarchs created centralized administrative structures staffed by educated professionals to manage state affairs, collect taxes, and enforce laws
• The growth of commerce and trade: The establishment of overseas empires and the influx of wealth from the New World stimulated economic growth and the rise of a merchant class
  • This economic growth provided monarchs with new sources of revenue through taxation and tariffs
• The development of mercantilism: An economic theory that emphasized the accumulation of wealth through a favorable balance of trade, promoted by nation-states to strengthen their economies
• The rise of professional standing armies: Monarchs created centrally-controlled military forces equipped with gunpowder weapons, reducing their reliance on feudal levies
• The consolidation of territorial control: Monarchs sought to expand their territories through conquest, strategic marriages, and diplomacy, leading to the formation of larger, more cohesive states
• The patronage of the arts and sciences: Many monarchs, influenced by Renaissance ideals, supported artists, writers, and scholars, using cultural patronage to enhance their prestige and legitimacy

Social and Cultural Impact

• The spread of Renaissance ideas: The centralization of power in nation-states facilitated the dissemination of Renaissance art, literature, and humanist thought throughout Europe
• The Protestant Reformation: The rise of nation-states and the decline of the Catholic Church's authority created conditions favorable to the spread of Protestant ideas
  • Some monarchs, such as Henry VIII of England, used the Reformation to further consolidate their power by breaking with the Catholic Church
• The rise of vernacular languages: As nation-states developed, the use of vernacular languages in government, literature, and education became more common, contributing to the formation of national identities
• The growth of cities: The economic growth and centralization associated with the rise of nation-states led to the expansion of cities and the emergence of new urban classes
• Changes in social hierarchy: The decline of feudalism and the rise of professional bureaucracies created new opportunities for social mobility, particularly for the educated middle class
• Religious conflicts: The Protestant Reformation and the response of the Catholic Church (the Counter-Reformation) led to religious wars and persecutions, shaping the social and cultural landscape of Europe
• The Scientific Revolution: The centralization of power and patronage of the arts and sciences in nation-states contributed to the development of new scientific ideas and methods

Legacy and Long-Term Effects

• The foundation of modern nation-states: The New Monarchies and the rise of nation-states in the 15th and 16th centuries laid the groundwork for the development of modern nation-states in Europe and beyond
• The growth of European empires: The centralization of power in nation-states and the establishment of professional standing armies enabled European countries to expand their overseas empires and exert global influence
• The development of absolutism: The centralization of power in the hands of monarchs during the rise of New Monarchies set the stage for the development of absolutist regimes in the 17th and 18th centuries (Louis XIV of France)
• The Enlightenment and the Age of Revolutions: The political, economic, and social changes associated with the rise of nation-states contributed to the intellectual ferment of the Enlightenment and the political upheavals of the Age of Revolutions (American Revolution, French Revolution)
• The formation of national identities: The rise of nation-states and the associated cultural and linguistic changes helped to shape the development of modern national identities in Europe
• The impact on European diplomacy: The emergence of nation-states as the primary actors in European politics led to the development of new forms of diplomacy, including the establishment of permanent embassies and the negotiation of international treaties (Peace of Westphalia, 1648)
• The legacy of religious conflicts: The religious conflicts that emerged in the wake of the Protestant Reformation and the rise of nation-states had long-lasting effects on European society and politics, shaping the development of religious tolerance and the relationship between church and state