8.3 Key Figures: Galileo, Newton, and the Royal Society

The Scientific Revolution brought groundbreaking discoveries that reshaped our understanding of the universe. Key figures like Galileo and Newton challenged long-held beliefs with their observations and theories, revolutionizing astronomy and physics.

The Royal Society played a crucial role in fostering scientific progress. Founded in 1660, it provided a platform for scholars to share ideas and validate findings through peer review, laying the groundwork for modern scientific methods.

Galileo Galilei and the Telescope

Galileo's Astronomical Discoveries

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• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician who made groundbreaking observations of celestial bodies using the telescope
• Improved the design of the refracting telescope in 1609, increasing its magnification power up to 20 times
• Used his telescope to make detailed observations of the Moon's surface, discovering that it was not perfectly smooth but had mountains, craters, and valleys
• Observed four of Jupiter's largest moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) in 1610, providing evidence that not all celestial bodies revolved around the Earth
• Discovered sunspots and observed the phases of Venus, further supporting the heliocentric model proposed by Copernicus

Conflict with the Catholic Church

• Galileo's findings challenged the prevailing geocentric model of the universe supported by the Catholic Church, which placed Earth at the center of the universe
• Published his observations and arguments in favor of the heliocentric model in various works, including "Sidereus Nuncius" (Starry Messenger) and "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems"
• Faced opposition and censorship from the Church, which viewed his ideas as heretical and contrary to biblical teachings
• In 1633, Galileo was tried by the Roman Inquisition and forced to recant his beliefs, spending the remainder of his life under house arrest
• Despite the Church's opposition, Galileo's work laid the foundation for the acceptance of the heliocentric model and the advancement of modern astronomy

Isaac Newton's Laws and Principia Mathematica

Newton's Laws of Motion

• Isaac Newton (1643-1727) was an English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer who made seminal contributions to the scientific revolution
• Developed three fundamental laws of motion that describe the behavior of objects in the universe
  1. Law of Inertia: An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force
  2. Law of Acceleration: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass ($F = ma$)
  3. Law of Action-Reaction: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
• These laws laid the foundation for classical mechanics and provided a unified explanation for the motion of objects on Earth and in the heavens

Universal Gravitation and Principia Mathematica

• In his groundbreaking work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), published in 1687, Newton introduced the law of universal gravitation
• The law states that every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them ($F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}$)
• Newton's law of universal gravitation explained the orbits of planets and moons, the trajectory of comets, and the tides on Earth
• "Principia Mathematica" also presented Newton's three laws of motion and his development of calculus, revolutionizing the fields of mathematics and physics
• Newton's work unified terrestrial and celestial mechanics, demonstrating that the same natural laws govern motion on Earth and in the heavens

The Royal Society and Its Members

Establishment and Purpose of the Royal Society

• The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, was founded in 1660
• Established as a learned society for the promotion of scientific inquiry and the exchange of ideas among scholars
• Received royal patronage from King Charles II in 1662, granting it official status and recognition
• The Society's motto, "Nullius in verba" (Take nobody's word for it), emphasized the importance of experimental evidence and skepticism in scientific research
• Played a crucial role in the scientific revolution by providing a platform for the dissemination of knowledge and the validation of scientific findings through peer review

Notable Members and Their Contributions

• Robert Boyle (1627-1691) was a founding member of the Royal Society and is considered the first modern chemist
  • Conducted experiments on the properties of gases, leading to the formulation of Boyle's Law, which describes the inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature
  • Emphasized the importance of rigorous experimentation and precise measurement in scientific inquiry
• Robert Hooke (1635-1703) was another prominent member of the Royal Society, serving as its Curator of Experiments
  • Made significant contributions to the fields of microscopy, geology, and architecture
  • Used a compound microscope to observe and describe the cellular structure of plants, coining the term "cell" in his book "Micrographia" (1665)
  • Proposed a wave theory of light and discovered the law of elasticity, known as Hooke's Law, which states that the force required to extend or compress a spring is directly proportional to the distance of extension or compression
• Other notable members of the Royal Society during this period included Christopher Wren, Edmond Halley, and Isaac Newton, who served as its president from 1703 to 1727 The Royal Society's emphasis on experimental evidence, open communication, and peer review helped to establish the foundations of modern scientific methodology and contributed to the rapid advancement of science during the scientific revolution.