🏺Early World Civilizations Unit 14 – Byzantine Empire and Eastern Orthodoxy

Historical Context and Origins

• Byzantine Empire emerged from the eastern half of the Roman Empire in the 4th century CE
• Constantine the Great moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium in 330 CE, renaming it Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul)
• Survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century and continued for nearly a millennium
• Blended Greco-Roman traditions with Christian and Near Eastern influences
• Justinian I's reign (527-565 CE) marked a period of expansion and codification of Roman law (Corpus Juris Civilis)
• Experienced a golden age during the Macedonian Dynasty (867-1056 CE) with a flourishing of art, literature, and learning
• Declined due to internal struggles, external threats (Seljuk Turks, Crusaders), and the rise of the Ottoman Empire

Key Figures and Rulers

• Constantine the Great (r. 306-337 CE) founded Constantinople and legalized Christianity
• Justinian I (r. 527-565 CE) reconquered lost territories, codified Roman law, and built the Hagia Sophia
  • His wife, Theodora, was an influential figure in her own right and supported religious and social reforms
• Heraclius (r. 610-641 CE) defended the empire against the Persians and introduced Greek as the official language
• Basil I (r. 867-886 CE) founded the Macedonian Dynasty and ushered in a golden age
• Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081-1118 CE) sought help from the West, leading to the First Crusade
• Constantine XI Palaiologos (r. 1449-1453 CE) was the last Byzantine emperor, dying in the defense of Constantinople against the Ottomans

Byzantine Political Structure

• Centralized government with the emperor as the supreme authority in political, military, and religious matters
• Emperor was considered God's representative on Earth and ruled by divine right
• Bureaucracy and court system were complex and hierarchical
  • Consisted of various officials, such as the logothetes (finance ministers) and the eparch of Constantinople (city prefect)
• Theme system divided the empire into administrative and military districts governed by strategos
• Senate acted as an advisory body but held limited power compared to the emperor
• Imperial succession was often contested, leading to dynastic struggles and coups

Eastern Orthodox Christianity

• Dominant religion in the Byzantine Empire, with the emperor as the head of the church
• Emerged from the Great Schism of 1054 CE, which divided Christianity into Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism
  • Differences included the authority of the Pope, the filioque clause, and liturgical practices
• Emphasized the importance of the Bible, the teachings of the Church Fathers, and the decisions of the Seven Ecumenical Councils
• Iconoclasm controversy (726-843 CE) debated the use of religious images (icons) in worship
  • Iconoclasts opposed icons, while iconodules supported their veneration
• Monasticism played a significant role in religious life, with monks often serving as scholars, diplomats, and advisors
• Influenced the spread of Christianity to the Slavic world through the missionary work of Sts. Cyril and Methodius

Art, Architecture, and Culture

• Byzantine art and architecture blended Greco-Roman, Christian, and Near Eastern influences
• Mosaics and frescoes adorned churches and public buildings, depicting religious scenes and imperial figures
  • Ravenna, Italy, houses some of the finest examples of early Byzantine mosaics (San Vitale)
• Hagia Sophia, built under Justinian I, exemplifies Byzantine architectural achievements with its massive dome and intricate decorations
• Illuminated manuscripts, such as the Paris Psalter, showcased the skill of Byzantine artists
• Literature flourished, with works like the epic poem "Digenis Akritas" and the historical writings of Procopius and Anna Komnene
• Education was highly valued, with the University of Constantinople serving as a center of learning

Byzantine Military and Expansion

• Byzantine army was known for its discipline, strategy, and use of advanced military technology (Greek fire)
• Theme system provided a decentralized military structure, with soldiers granted land in exchange for military service
• Justinian I's reconquests expanded the empire to include North Africa, Italy, and parts of Spain
• Conflicts with the Sassanid Persian Empire, Arab caliphates, and later the Seljuk Turks and Crusaders
• Varangian Guard, an elite unit of Norse and Russian mercenaries, served as the emperor's personal bodyguard
• Belisarius and Narses were notable generals who led successful campaigns during Justinian I's reign

Interactions with Other Civilizations

• Served as a bridge between Europe and Asia, facilitating trade and cultural exchange along the Silk Roads
• Diplomatic relations with the Sassanid Persian Empire, Arab caliphates, and later the Frankish Empire and the Papacy
• Influence on the development of Slavic cultures and the Russian Orthodox Church through the Christianization of the Rus' (988 CE)
• Conflict and cooperation with the Islamic world, including periods of peace and cultural exchange
• Played a crucial role in the Crusades, with the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204 CE) sacking Constantinople and establishing the Latin Empire

Legacy and Influence

• Preserved and transmitted ancient Greek knowledge to the Islamic world and later to Renaissance Europe
• Byzantine art, architecture, and culture influenced the development of medieval European and Islamic art
• Eastern Orthodox Christianity continues to be practiced by millions worldwide
• The Cyrillic alphabet, developed by Sts. Cyril and Methodius, is used by many Slavic languages today
• Contributed to the development of the Russian state and the concept of "Third Rome" after the fall of Constantinople
• The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 CE marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and the Middle Ages