🤍Economic Geography Unit 4 – Primary Sector: Agriculture & Resources

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Primary sector involves extracting raw materials directly from the Earth, including agriculture, mining, fishing, and forestry
• Subsistence agriculture produces food primarily for the farmer's own consumption and survival (shifting cultivation, pastoralism)
• Commercial agriculture produces crops and livestock for sale in the market, often using modern technologies and inputs (intensive farming, plantation agriculture)
• Resource extraction involves removing valuable materials from the Earth, such as minerals, oil, and natural gas
• Location quotient (LQ) measures the concentration of an industry in a region compared to the national average
  • LQ = (Local industry employment / Total local employment) / (National industry employment / Total national employment)
• Von Thünen model explains the spatial distribution of agricultural activities based on the distance from a central market and transportation costs
• Comparative advantage refers to a country's ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than other countries

Historical Context of Primary Sector

• Agriculture emerged during the Neolithic Revolution around 10,000 BCE, marking the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled farming communities
• The Columbian Exchange (1492-1800s) involved the transfer of crops, animals, and diseases between the Old World and New World, transforming global agriculture
• The British Agricultural Revolution (18th-19th centuries) introduced new farming techniques (crop rotation, selective breeding) and technologies (seed drill, threshing machine), increasing productivity
• The Green Revolution (1950s-1970s) involved the development and spread of high-yielding crop varieties, irrigation, and agrochemicals in developing countries, significantly increasing food production
• The Industrial Revolution (late 18th-19th centuries) led to the mechanization of agriculture and the rise of factory farming, reducing the need for manual labor
• Globalization and trade liberalization (20th-21st centuries) have increased the interconnectedness of agricultural markets and the flow of agricultural products across borders

Types of Agriculture and Resource Extraction

• Intensive farming involves high inputs of labor, capital, and technology to maximize yields on a relatively small land area (greenhouse horticulture, feedlots)
• Extensive farming uses lower inputs and yields per unit area, often covering larger land areas (ranching, grain farming)
• Plantation agriculture involves large-scale monoculture of cash crops (coffee, sugarcane) for export, often using cheap labor
• Slash-and-burn agriculture (shifting cultivation) involves clearing and burning forest patches for short-term cultivation before moving to a new area
• Pastoralism involves the herding of livestock (cattle, sheep, goats) in grassland or semi-arid regions, often following seasonal migration patterns
• Surface mining extracts minerals and resources near the Earth's surface through open-pit or strip mining (coal, copper)
• Underground mining involves digging shafts and tunnels to access deeper mineral deposits (gold, diamonds)
• Offshore drilling extracts oil and natural gas from underwater reservoirs using platforms or rigs

Spatial Distribution of Primary Activities

• Agricultural activities are influenced by physical factors such as climate, soil fertility, and water availability
  • Temperate regions (North America, Europe) are suitable for grain farming and dairy production
  • Tropical regions (Southeast Asia, Central America) specialize in plantation crops (bananas, coffee)
• The Green Revolution had a greater impact on agricultural productivity in regions with access to irrigation, agrochemicals, and improved seed varieties (Punjab, India)
• Mining activities are concentrated in areas with rich mineral deposits and favorable geological conditions
  • The Witwatersrand Basin in South Africa contains the world's largest gold reserves
  • The Atacama Desert in Chile is a major source of copper and lithium
• Oil and natural gas production is concentrated in regions with significant hydrocarbon reserves
  • The Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Iran) holds the world's largest conventional oil reserves
  • The Permian Basin in the United States is a major shale oil and gas producing region
• Fishing activities are concentrated in coastal areas and major river systems with abundant fish stocks (North Atlantic, South China Sea)

Economic Importance and Global Trade

• The primary sector provides essential raw materials and inputs for other economic sectors (manufacturing, services)
• Agricultural exports are a significant source of foreign exchange earnings for many developing countries (Brazil, Indonesia)
• Resource exports (oil, minerals) can generate substantial revenues for resource-rich countries, but also lead to economic dependence and vulnerability to price fluctuations (Dutch Disease)
• Global agricultural trade is influenced by trade agreements, subsidies, and tariffs
  • The World Trade Organization (WTO) aims to reduce trade barriers and promote fair competition
  • The European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) provides subsidies and price supports for European farmers
• The rise of global value chains has increased the integration of primary sector activities across borders, with raw materials sourced from multiple countries and processed in others
• Fair trade and ethical sourcing initiatives aim to improve the livelihoods of small-scale farmers and ensure sustainable production practices (Fairtrade International, Rainforest Alliance)

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability

• Agriculture is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions (methane from livestock, nitrous oxide from fertilizers) and deforestation (palm oil plantations, cattle ranching)
• Intensive farming practices can lead to soil degradation, water pollution, and biodiversity loss
  • Overuse of agrochemicals (pesticides, fertilizers) can contaminate water sources and harm wildlife
  • Monoculture farming reduces genetic diversity and increases vulnerability to pests and diseases
• Mining activities can cause land degradation, air and water pollution, and habitat destruction
  • Acid mine drainage occurs when exposed sulfides react with water and air, creating acidic runoff that contaminates waterways
  • Mountaintop removal mining in the Appalachian region of the United States has led to the destruction of forests and ecosystems
• Overfishing and destructive fishing practices (bottom trawling, dynamite fishing) can deplete fish stocks and damage marine habitats
• Sustainable agriculture practices aim to balance productivity with environmental conservation
  • Agroforestry integrates trees and crops to improve soil fertility and biodiversity
  • Organic farming avoids the use of synthetic agrochemicals and promotes natural pest control and soil management
• Sustainable resource management involves balancing extraction with conservation and minimizing environmental impacts
  • Reforestation and afforestation efforts aim to restore degraded forests and offset carbon emissions
  • Marine protected areas (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park) regulate fishing activities and protect sensitive ecosystems

Technological Advancements in the Primary Sector

• Precision agriculture uses GPS, remote sensing, and data analytics to optimize crop management and resource use
  • Variable rate technology allows farmers to apply inputs (seeds, fertilizers) at different rates across a field based on soil conditions and crop needs
  • Drones and satellites provide real-time data on crop health, moisture levels, and pest infestations
• Genetic engineering and biotechnology have led to the development of genetically modified (GM) crops with enhanced traits (pest resistance, drought tolerance)
• Vertical farming involves growing crops in stacked layers within controlled environments (greenhouses, warehouses), reducing land use and water consumption
• Automation and robotics are increasingly used in agriculture and mining to improve efficiency and safety
  • Milking robots in dairy farms can automatically milk cows and monitor their health
  • Autonomous mining vehicles (haul trucks, drills) can operate continuously without human intervention
• Renewable energy technologies (solar, wind, geothermal) are being integrated into primary sector activities to reduce fossil fuel dependence and carbon emissions
• Blockchain technology is being explored for supply chain traceability and transparency in agriculture and mining, ensuring ethical and sustainable sourcing

Case Studies and Regional Variations

• The United States is a major agricultural producer and exporter, with a highly mechanized and industrialized farming sector
  • California's Central Valley is known for its diverse crop production (almonds, grapes, tomatoes) and intensive irrigation
  • The Midwest (Iowa, Illinois) is a major producer of corn and soybeans, often using genetically modified varieties
• Brazil has emerged as an agricultural superpower, with vast expanses of arable land and a growing agribusiness sector
  • The Amazon rainforest has been subject to deforestation for cattle ranching and soybean cultivation, raising concerns about environmental sustainability
  • The Cerrado savanna region has become a major producer of coffee, sugarcane, and cotton
• Australia is a significant exporter of mining products, particularly iron ore and coal
  • The Pilbara region in Western Australia contains vast reserves of iron ore, fueling China's steel industry
  • The Hunter Valley in New South Wales is a major coal mining area, with concerns about air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions
• The Netherlands is a global leader in intensive greenhouse horticulture, using advanced technologies to produce high-value crops (tomatoes, peppers, flowers) for export
  • The Westland region near The Hague is known for its high concentration of greenhouses and innovative production methods
  • Dutch horticulture has a strong focus on sustainability, using closed-loop water systems and biological pest control
• The Gulf of Guinea in West Africa is a major oil-producing region, with significant offshore reserves
  • Nigeria is Africa's largest oil producer, with the Niger Delta region facing environmental degradation and social unrest related to oil extraction
  • Ghana has recently discovered offshore oil reserves, raising hopes for economic development but also concerns about the resource curse