1.4 Historical development and current trends

Energy storage has come a long way since the invention of lead-acid batteries. From lithium-ion to flow and solid-state batteries, we've seen huge leaps in tech. These advances have made energy storage more efficient, affordable, and versatile.

Today, energy storage is crucial for grid stability and renewable energy integration. It's not just about big power plants anymore – homes and businesses are getting in on the action too. The future looks bright, with policies and market growth driving innovation.

Traditional and Emerging Battery Technologies

Lead-acid and Lithium-ion Batteries

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• Lead-acid batteries one of the oldest rechargeable battery technologies
  • Consist of lead and lead dioxide electrodes immersed in a sulfuric acid electrolyte
  • Widely used in automotive industry for starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) applications
  • Also used in stationary energy storage systems for backup power and grid support
• Lithium-ion batteries currently dominate the portable electronics and electric vehicle markets
  • Utilize lithium ions that move between the anode and cathode during charging and discharging
  • Offer high energy density, long cycle life, and low self-discharge rates compared to other battery technologies
  • Various lithium-ion chemistries available (lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide)

Flow and Solid-state Batteries

• Flow batteries store energy in liquid electrolytes that are pumped through a cell stack
  • Redox flow batteries most common type, using two separate electrolyte solutions (anolyte and catholyte)
  • Advantages include decoupled power and energy capacity, long cycle life, and ability to store large amounts of energy
  • Examples of flow battery chemistries: vanadium redox, zinc-bromine, iron-chromium
• Solid-state batteries replace the liquid or gel electrolyte with a solid electrolyte material
  • Potential benefits include higher energy density, improved safety, and faster charging capabilities compared to conventional lithium-ion batteries
  • Challenges include high manufacturing costs, limited ionic conductivity, and interface stability issues
  • Various solid electrolyte materials under investigation (sulfides, oxides, polymers)

Energy Storage Applications and Deployment

Grid-scale Energy Storage

• Grid-scale storage refers to large-scale energy storage systems connected to the electrical grid
  • Provides various services such as frequency regulation, peak shaving, renewable energy integration, and transmission and distribution deferral
  • Pumped hydro storage most mature and widely deployed grid-scale storage technology (stores energy by pumping water between two reservoirs at different elevations)
  • Other technologies include compressed air energy storage (CAES), flywheels, and large-scale battery systems
• Increasing deployment of grid-scale storage driven by declining costs, policy support, and need for grid flexibility
  • Global grid-scale storage capacity expected to grow significantly in coming decades to support renewable energy integration and grid modernization efforts

Decentralized Energy Storage

• Decentralized energy storage refers to smaller-scale storage systems located at or near the point of energy consumption
  • Includes residential and commercial battery systems, electric vehicle charging infrastructure, and microgrids
  • Enables consumers to store excess renewable energy generation (rooftop solar), manage energy costs, and provide backup power during outages
• Growing adoption of decentralized storage driven by falling battery costs, increasing renewable energy penetration, and desire for energy independence
  • Residential battery storage systems (Tesla Powerwall, LG Chem RESU) becoming more common in markets with high electricity prices and favorable policies
  • Electric vehicle charging infrastructure expanding rapidly to support growing EV adoption, with potential for vehicle-to-grid (V2G) services in the future

Market and Policy Landscape

Energy Storage Policies and Market Growth

• Energy storage policies play a critical role in driving market growth and deployment
  • Policies include financial incentives (tax credits, grants, rebates), mandates and targets, utility procurement programs, and market reforms
  • Examples of storage-specific policies in the United States: Federal Investment Tax Credit (ITC), California's Assembly Bill 2514, and FERC Order 841
  • Countries like China, Australia, and Germany also implementing supportive policies to accelerate storage adoption
• Global energy storage market experiencing rapid growth, with annual deployments expected to reach hundreds of gigawatts by 2030
  • Driven by falling technology costs, increasing renewable energy penetration, and growing demand for grid flexibility and resilience
  • Lithium-ion batteries expected to dominate the market in the near term, with increasing competition from other technologies (flow batteries, solid-state batteries) in the long term
  • Key market segments include utility-scale storage, residential and commercial storage, and electric vehicle charging infrastructure