🖋️English Prose Style Unit 4 – Punctuation and Mechanics

Key Punctuation Marks

• Period (.) used to end declarative sentences and indicate abbreviations
  • Place inside quotation marks when used with quoted material
  • Abbreviations in academic writing (e.g., etc., i.e., et al.) always take a period
• Comma (,) separates clauses, phrases, and items in a series
  • Oxford comma placed before the final item in a list for clarity (apples, bananas, and oranges)
  • Use commas to set off nonrestrictive clauses and phrases
• Semicolon (;) joins two closely related independent clauses or separates items in a complex list
  • Can replace a period or coordinating conjunction between related sentences
  • Used to separate list items that contain internal commas (The conference had attendees from Seattle, Washington; Los Angeles, California; and Boston, Massachusetts.)
• Colon (:) introduces a list, explanation, or example after an independent clause
  • Capitalize the first word after a colon if it begins a complete sentence
  • Use a colon to introduce a formal quotation or to emphasize a point
• Question mark (?) indicates a direct question and follows the quoted material in a quotation
• Exclamation point (!) expresses strong emotion or emphasis and is used sparingly in formal writing
• Dash (—) marks a sudden break in thought, sets off parenthetical information, or highlights a key point
  • Use an em dash (—) with no spaces on either side in formal writing
• Parentheses ( () ) enclose supplementary information, citations, or clarifications
  • Place punctuation inside parentheses only if the entire sentence is within them

Common Mechanical Errors

• Sentence fragments occur when a dependent clause or phrase is punctuated as a complete sentence
  • Correct by combining the fragment with a nearby sentence or rewriting it as an independent clause
• Run-on sentences happen when two or more independent clauses are joined without proper punctuation or conjunctions
  • Use a period, semicolon, or coordinating conjunction with a comma to separate the clauses
• Comma splices result from joining two independent clauses with only a comma
  • Replace the comma with a semicolon, period, or coordinating conjunction with a comma
• Misused apostrophes often appear in plurals or possessive pronouns (its/it's)
  • Apostrophes indicate possession (the student's book) or contraction (can't), not plurals
• Incorrect capitalization of proper nouns, titles, and the first word of a sentence
  • Capitalize names, places, days, months, and languages, but not general nouns
• Misplaced or dangling modifiers create ambiguity when placed too far from the word they modify
  • Keep modifiers close to the words they describe for clarity
• Inconsistent verb tense shifts confuse readers by mixing past, present, and future tenses
  • Maintain consistent verb tense throughout a sentence or paragraph unless the time frame changes

Punctuation Rules and Usage

• Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) joining two independent clauses
• Place commas and periods inside closing quotation marks in American English
  • Colons and semicolons always go outside the closing quotation mark
  • Question marks and exclamation points depend on whether they belong to the quoted material or the entire sentence
• Use a semicolon between closely related independent clauses when a coordinating conjunction is omitted
• Place a colon after an independent clause when introducing a list, explanation, or formal quotation
• Use an apostrophe to indicate possession (singular: the cat's toy; plural: the cats' toys) and contractions (don't, can't)
  • Never use an apostrophe to form plural nouns (CDs, 1990s)
• Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations, titles of short works (essays, chapters), and words used in a special sense
  • Single quotation marks are used for quotes within quotes
• Use parentheses to enclose supplementary information, citations, or asides
  • If a complete sentence is within parentheses, place the period inside the closing parenthesis
• Use a hyphen (-) to join compound modifiers before a noun (well-known author) and to indicate line breaks in words
  • Do not hyphenate adverbs ending in -ly (highly acclaimed novel)

Enhancing Clarity with Proper Mechanics

• Consistent capitalization of proper nouns and titles helps readers identify key people, places, and things
  • Capitalize the first word of a sentence and the pronoun "I"
• Correct apostrophe usage distinguishes possessives from contractions and plurals
  • Its (possessive) vs. it's (contraction of "it is")
  • Plural possessives: the Smiths' house, the dogs' toys
• Proper comma placement clarifies the relationships between ideas and avoids confusion
  • Use commas to separate items in a series, introductory phrases, and nonrestrictive clauses
  • Omit commas between compound predicates and cumulative adjectives (The tall, dark, handsome stranger)
• Consistent verb tense maintains a clear timeline and aids reader comprehension
  • Shift tenses only when necessary to indicate a change in time frame
• Parallel structure emphasizes the relationship between ideas and enhances readability
  • Use the same grammatical form for items in a series or list (noun, noun, noun; verb phrase, verb phrase, verb phrase)
• Correct placement of modifiers ensures that they clearly refer to the intended word or phrase
  • Misplaced: The patient was referred to the physician with a severe headache.
  • Corrected: The patient with a severe headache was referred to the physician.
• Appropriate use of semicolons and colons helps organize complex lists and joins related ideas
  • Use a semicolon between closely related independent clauses or to separate complex list items
  • Use a colon to introduce a list, explanation, or formal quotation after an independent clause

Style Considerations in Punctuation

• Dashes create a more emphatic break than commas or parentheses
  • Use sparingly to maintain their impact and avoid disrupting the flow of the sentence
• Ellipses (...) indicate omitted words in a quotation or a trailing off in dialogue
  • Avoid overuse, as they can create a sense of incompleteness or uncertainty
• Exclamation points convey strong emotion but can appear unprofessional if used excessively
  • Limit their use in formal writing and let word choice convey emphasis instead
• Semicolons can join closely related ideas, but overuse can make writing appear choppy
  • Vary sentence structure and use semicolons sparingly for maximum impact
• Serial commas (Oxford commas) provide clarity in lists but may be omitted in journalistic writing
  • Consistency in usage is key to avoiding confusion
• Quotation marks for emphasis or irony (scare quotes) can convey a sarcastic or skeptical tone
  • Use sparingly and rely on word choice and context to convey meaning
• Parentheses can add supplementary information but may disrupt the flow of the sentence
  • Use commas or dashes for smoother integration of parenthetical information
• Apostrophes in contractions can create a more informal tone
  • Use contractions sparingly in formal writing to maintain a professional tone

Proofreading Techniques

• Read the document aloud to identify awkward phrasing, run-on sentences, or misplaced punctuation
  • Hearing the words can help you catch errors that your eyes might miss
• Use a ruler or blank sheet of paper to cover the lines below the one you're reading
  • This technique helps you focus on each line individually and avoid skipping ahead
• Read the document backward, starting with the last sentence and moving to the first
  • This method helps you focus on individual sentences and punctuation without getting caught up in the content
• Check for consistency in punctuation, capitalization, and formatting
  • Ensure that you've used the same style throughout the document (e.g., serial commas, quotation marks)
• Use spell-check and grammar-check tools, but don't rely on them exclusively
  • These tools can miss context-specific errors or suggest incorrect changes
• Have someone else review your work to provide a fresh perspective and catch errors you might have overlooked
• Create a personalized checklist of your most common errors to refer to during proofreading
  • This list can help you focus on your specific areas for improvement
• Take breaks between writing and proofreading to approach the document with a clear mind
  • Stepping away from your work can help you notice errors more easily when you return

Digital Age Punctuation

• Emoticons and emojis can convey tone and emotion in informal digital communication
  • Avoid using them in formal writing, as they may appear unprofessional
• Hashtags (#) are used on social media platforms to categorize and search for content
  • Capitalize each word in a hashtag for readability (#SocialMediaMarketing)
• Mentions (@) tag other users in social media posts and can be used to direct a message or give credit
  • Place the @ symbol directly before the username with no space (@JohnDoe)
• Slashes (/) can indicate alternatives (and/or), line breaks in poetry, or fractions
  • Avoid using slashes in formal writing, as they can appear informal or ambiguous
• Tildes (~) informally convey approximation or sarcasm
  • In formal writing, use words like "approximately" or "about" instead
• Asterisks (*) can indicate corrections, footnotes, or emphasis
  • Use asterisks sparingly in formal writing, as they can disrupt the flow of the text
• Underscores (_) are used to create blank spaces in forms or to underline words in plain text
  • In formal writing, use italics or boldface for emphasis instead of underlining
• Camel case (capitalizing the first letter of each word in a phrase) is common in hashtags and programming languages
  • Avoid using camel case in formal writing, as it can appear informal or difficult to read

Exercises and Practice

• Correct the following sentence: "The dog, laid down in the shade and rested it's head on its paws."
  • Answer: "The dog lay down in the shade and rested its head on its paws."
• Add necessary punctuation to the following sentence: "I enjoy hiking swimming and biking."
  • Answer: "I enjoy hiking, swimming, and biking."
• Rewrite the following sentence to correct the misplaced modifier: "Walking through the park, a squirrel caught my attention."
  • Answer: "While walking through the park, I noticed a squirrel." or "A squirrel caught my attention as I walked through the park."
• Correct the apostrophe errors in the following sentence: "The childrens' toys were scattered across the floor, and the cat's bowl was empty."
  • Answer: "The children's toys were scattered across the floor, and the cat's bowl was empty."
• Correct the run-on sentence by adding appropriate punctuation: "The concert was sold out we managed to get tickets at the last minute."
  • Answer: "The concert was sold out; we managed to get tickets at the last minute." or "The concert was sold out, but we managed to get tickets at the last minute."
• Rewrite the following sentence to maintain consistent verb tense: "She walks to the store and bought a gallon of milk."
  • Answer: "She walked to the store and bought a gallon of milk." or "She walks to the store and buys a gallon of milk."
• Add commas where needed in the following sentence: "After finishing the project the team celebrated with a dinner at a nearby restaurant."
  • Answer: "After finishing the project, the team celebrated with a dinner at a nearby restaurant."
• Correct the capitalization errors in the following sentence: "she visited the grand canyon, the statue of Liberty, and the washington monument during her trip."
  • Answer: "She visited the Grand Canyon, the Statue of Liberty, and the Washington Monument during her trip."